r*" 


- 


A 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


BY 

CHARLES  E.  BENNETT 

Goldwin  Smith  Professor  of  Latin  in  Cornell  University 


\ 


Quicquid  praecipies ,  esto  brevis .  ut  cito  dicta 
Percipiant  animi  dociles  teneantque  fideles : 
Omne  supervacuum  pleno  de  pectore  manat. 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 
0HESTNUT  HILL,  MASS. 


% 


ALLYN  AND  BACON 
Boston  jSta  Jgotfe  Chicago 


1r 


First  edition  printed  February,  1895. 

Reprinted  April  and  September,  1895;  April,  1896; 
July,  1897;  April,  1898;  May  and  September,  1899; 
April  and  November,  1900;  October,  1901;  March, 
1902;  April  and  November,  1903;  July,  1904;  April, 
1905;  April  and  November,  1906. 

Revised  edition  printed  March,  1908;  April  and 
October,  1909;  May,  1910;  March,  1911;  March, 
1912;  March,  1913;  April,  1914;  March,  1915; 
April,  1916;  March,  1917. 


COPYRIGHT,  1895  AND  1908. 
BY  CHARLES  E.  BENNETT. 


Norfoaoti  -Press 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


The  present  book  is  a  revision  of  my  Latin  Grammar 
originally  published  in  1895.  Wherever  greater  accuracy  or 
precision  of  statement  seemed  possible,  I  have  endeavored 
to  secure  this.  The  rules  for  syllable  division  have  been 
changed  and  made  to  conform  to  the  prevailing  practice 
of  the  Romans  themselves.  In  the  Perfect  Subjunctive 
Active,  the  endings  -Is,  -Imns,  -Itis  are  now  marked  long. 
The  theory  of  vowel  length  before  the  suffixes  -gnus,  -gna, 
-gnum,  and  also  before  j,  has  been  discarded.  In  the 
Syntax  I  have  recognized  a  special  category  of  Ablative 
of  Association,  and  have  abandoned  the  original  doctrine 
as  to  the  force  of  tenses  in  the  Prohibitive. 

Apart  from  the  foregoing,  only  minor  and  unessential 
modifications  have  been  introduced.  In  its  main  lines  the 
work  remains  unchanged. 

C.  E.  B. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 

October  16,  1907. 


FROM  THE  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  essential  facts 
of  Latin  grammar  in  a  direct  and  simple  manner,  and 
within  the  smallest  compass  consistent  with  scholarly 
standards.  While  intended  primarily  for  the  secondary 
school,  it  has  not  neglected  the  needs  of  the  college  stu¬ 
dent,  and  aims  to  furnish  such  grammatical  information  as 
is  ordinarily  required  in  undergraduate  courses. 


in 


iv  From  the  Preface  to  the  First  Edition. 

The  experience  of  German  educators  in  recent  years  has 
tended  to  restrict  the  size  of  school-grammars  of  Latin, 
and  has  demanded  an  incorporation  of  the  main  principles 
of  the  language  in  compact  manuals  of  250  pages.1  Within 
the  past  decade,  several  grammars  of  this  scope  have  ap¬ 
peared  which  have  amply  met  the  exacting  demands  of  the 
full  Gymnasial  Latin  course,  —  a  period  of  study  repre¬ 
senting  quite  as  much  reading  as  that  covered  by  the  aver¬ 
age  American  undergraduate. 

The  publication  in  this  country  of  a  grammar  of  similar 
plan  and  scope  seems  fully  justified  at  the  present  time,  as 
all  recent  editions  of  classic  texts  summarize  in  introduc¬ 
tions  the  special  idioms  of  grammar  and  style  peculiar  to 
individual  authors.  This  makes  it  .feasible  to  dispense 
with  the  enumeration  of  many  minutiae  of  usage  which 
would  otherwise  demand  consideration  in  a  student’s 
grammar. 

In  the  chapter  on  Prosody,  I  have  designedly  omitted 
all  special  treatment  of  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace  and 
Catullus,  as  well  as  of  the  measures  of  the  comic  poets. 
Our  standard  editions  of  these  authors  all  give  such  thor¬ 
ough  consideration  to  versification  that  repetition  in  a 
separate  place  seems  superfluous. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 

December  15,  1894. 


1  One  of  the  most  eminent  of  living  Latinists,  Professor  Eduard  Wolfflin, 
of  Munich,  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  essentials  may  be  given  within 
even  smaller  compass  than  this.  See  his  Preface  to  the  Schmalz-Wagener 
Lateinische  Gram??iatik,  1891. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


-•O* 


Part  I. 

SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY,  ETC. 


The  Alphabet . 

Classification  of  Sounds  .  .  . 

Sounds  of  the  Letters  .  .  .  . 

Syllables . 

Quantity . 


PAGE 

i 

i 

3 

4 
4 


Accent . . 

Vowel  Changes . 

Consonant  Changes . 

Peculiarities  of  Orthography  .  . 


PAGE 

5 

6 

7 

7 


Part  II. 

INFLECTIONS. 


CHAPTER  I.  —  Declension. 

A.  Nouns. 


Gender  of  Nouns . io 

Number . n 

Cases . ii 

The  Five  Declensions  ....  12 

First  Declension . 13 

Second  Declension  .....  14 

Third  Declension . 18 

Fourth  Declension . 28 

Fifth  Declension  ......  29 

Defective  Nouns . 30 


B.  Adjectives. 

0 

Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 


Declensions . 34 

Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declen¬ 
sion  . 36 

Comparison  of  Adjectives  ...  40 

Formation  and  Comparison  of 

Adverbs . 43 

Numerals  .  .  / . 45 


C.  Pronouns. 

Personal  Pronouns  .  ...  48 

Reflexive  Pronouns . 49 

Possessive  Pronouns . 49 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  ...  50 

The  Intensive  Pronoun  ....  51 

The  Relative  Pronoun  ....  51 

Interrogative  Pronouns  ....  52 

Indefinite  Pronouns . 52 

Pronominal  Adjectives  ....  53 


CHAPTER  II.  —  Conjugation. 


Verb- Stems . 54 

The  Four  Conjugations  ....  55 

Conjugation  of  Sum . 56 

First  Conjugation . 58 

Second  Conjugation . 62 

Third  Conjugation . 66 

Fourth  Conjugation . 70 

Verbs  in  - id  of  the  Third  Conju¬ 
gation  . 74 

Deponent  Verbs . 76 


v 


Table  of  Contents. 


vi 


PAGE 

Semi-Deponents . 78 

Periphrastic  Conjugation  ...  78 

Peculiarities  of  Conjugation  .  .  79 

Formation  of  the  Verb-Stems  .  80 


PAGE 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs 

with  Principal  Parts  ...  83 

Irregular  Verbs . 95 

Defective  Verbs . 102 

Impersonal  Verbs . 104 


Part  III. 

PARTICLES. 


Adverbs . .106 

Prepositions  . . 107 

Interjections . 108 


Part  IV. 

WORD  FORMATION. 


I.  Derivatives. 


Adverbs 


Nouns 
Adjectives 
Verbs  .  . 


109 

1 1 1 

11 3 


II.  Compounds. 

Examples  of  Compounds  .  .  . 


114 


“5 


Part  V. 

SYNTAX. 


CHAPTER  I.  —  Sentences. 

Classification  of  Sentences  .  .  .117 

Form  of  Interrogative  Sentences  1 1 7 
Subject  and  Predicate  .  .  .  .119 

Simple  and  Compound  Sentences  119 

CHAPTER  II. —  Syntax  of  Nouns. 


Subject . 120 

Predicate  Nouns . 120 

Appositives . 121 

The  Nominative . 122 

The  Accusative . 122 

The  Dative . 129 

The  Genitive . 134 

The  Ablative . 142 

The  Locative . 152 


CHAPTER  III.  —  Syntax  of 


Adjectives. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives  .  .  .  153 

Adjectives  used  Substantively  .  154' 
Adjectives  with  the  Force  of  Ad¬ 
verbs  . 156 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives  .  156 
Other  Peculiarities . 156 


CHAPTER  IV.  —  Syntax  of 


Pronouns. 

Personal  Pronouns . 157 

Possessive  Pronouns . 157 

Reflexive  Pronouns . 158 

Reciprocal  Pronouns  .  .  .  .159 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  .  .159 


Table  of  Contents.  vii 


PAGE 

Relative  Pronouns . 161 

Indefinite  Pronouns . 163 

Pronominal  Adjectives  .  .  .  .164 

CHAPTER  V.  —  Syntax  of  Verbs. 


Agreement  of  Verbs . 165 

Voices . 167 

Tenses . 167 

Of  the  Indicative . 167 

Of  the  Subjunctive  .  .  .  .171 

Of  the  Infinitive . 174 

Moods . 176 


In  Independent  Sentences  .  .176 

Volitive  Subjunctive  .  .  .176 

Optative  Subjunctive  .  .  .178 

Potential  Subjunctive  .  .  .179 

Imperative . 180 

In  Dependent  Sentences  .  .  181 

Clauses  of  Purpose .  .  .  .  181 

Clauses  of  Characteristic  .  .182 

Clauses  of  Result  .  .  .  .184 

'  Causal  Clauses . 185 

Temporal  Clauses  .  .  .  .187 

Introduced  by  Postquam, 

Ut Ubi,  etc . 187 

Cunt-Clauses . 188 

Introduced  by  Antequavi 
and  Priusqttam  .  .  .190 

Introduced  by  Dum,  Do¬ 
nee,  Quoad . 19 1 

Substantive  Clauses  .  .  .192 

Developed  from  the  Voli¬ 
tive  . 192 

Developed  from  the  Opta¬ 
tive  . 194 

Of  Result . 195 

After  non  dubito,  etc.  .  .195 

Introduced  by  Quod  .  .196 

Indirect  Questions  .  .  .  197 

Conditional  Sentences  .  .  198 

Use  of  St,  Nisi,  Sin  .  .  .202 


PAGE 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Com¬ 
parison  . 203 

Concessive  Clauses ....  203 
Adversative  Clauses  with 
.  Quatnvis,  Quamquam, 

etc . 203 

Clauses  of  Wish  and  Proviso  205 
Relative  Clauses  ....  205 
Indirect  Discourse  ....  206 
Moods  in  Indirect  Dis¬ 
course  . 206 

Tenses  in  Indirect  Dis¬ 
course  . 208 

Conditional  Sentences  in 
Indirect  Discourse  .  .  209 

Implied  Indirect  Discourse  .  21 1 
Subjunctive  by  Attraction  .  212 
Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the 

Verb . 212 


Infinitive . 213 

Participles . 217 

Gerund . 220 

Supine . 223 


CHAPTER  VI.  —  Particles. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions  .  .  .  223 

Adverbs . 227 

CHAPTER  VII. —  Word- Order 
and  Sentence-  Structure. 

Word-Order . 227 

Sentence-Structure . 232 

CHAPTER  VIII .  —  Hints  on 
Latin  Style. 


Nouns . 233 

Adjectives . 235 

Pronouns . 236 

Verbs . 236 

The  Cases . .  .  238 


Vlll 


Table  of  Contents. 


Part  VI. 

PROSODY. 


PAGE 

Quantity  of  Vowels  and  Sylla¬ 


bles'  . 240 

Verse-Structure . 243 


The  Dactylic  Hexameter  .  .  . 

The  Dactylic  Pentameter  .  . 

Iambic  Verses . 


PAGE 

245 

246 

246 


SUPPLEMENTS  TO  THE  GRAMMAR. 

« 

I.  Roman  Calendar  ....  247  III.  Figures  of  Syntax  and  Rhet- 
II.  Roman  Names  ....  249  oric . 249 


Part  I. 


- 4 - 

SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 

- * - 

THE  ALPHABET. 

1.  The  Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
except  that  the  Latin  has  no  w. 

1.  K  occurs  only  in  Kalendae  and  a  few  other  words  ;  y  and  z  were 
introduced  from  the  Greek  about  50  B.C.,  and  occur  only  in  foreign 
words  —  chiefly  Greek. 

2.  With  the  Romans,  who  regularly  employed  only  capitals,  I  served 
both  as  vowel  and  consonant;  so  also  V.  For  us,  however,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  distinguish  the  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  and  to  write 
i  and  u  for  the  former,  j  and  v  for  the  latter.  Yet  some  scholars  prefer 
to  employ  i  and  u  in  the  function  of  consonants  as  well  as  vowels. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOUNDS. 

2.  1.  The  Vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  The  other  letters 
are  Consonants.  The  Diphthongs  are  ae,  oe,  ei,  au,  eu,  ui. 

2.  Consonants  are  further  subdivided  into  Mutes, 
Liquids,  Nasals,  and  Spirants. 

3.  The  Mutes  are  p,  t,  c,  k,  q;  b,  d,  g ;  ph,  th,  ch.  Of 
these,  — 

a)  p,  t,  c,  k,  q  are  voiceless,1  i.e.  sounded  without  voice  or  vibra* 
tion  of  the  vocal  cords. 

b)  b,  d,  g  are  voiced,2  i.e.  sounded  with  vibration  of  the  vocal 
cords. 


1  For  1  voiceless,’  ‘  surd,’  ‘  hard,’  or  ‘  tenuis  ’  are  sometimes  used. 

2  For  *  voiced,’  ‘  sonant,’  ‘  soft,’  or  1  media  ’  are  sometimes  used. 

I 


f 


2 


Sounds ,  Accent ,  Quantity. 


c)  ph,  th,  ch  are  aspirates.  These  are  confined  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  to  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  were  equivalent 
to  p  +  h,  t  +  h,  c  +  h,  i.e.  to  the  corresponding  voiceless 
mutes  with  a  following  breath,  as  in  Eng.  loop-hole ,  hot-house , 
block-house. 

4.  The  Mutes  admit  of  classification  also  as 

Labials,  p,  b,  ph. 

Dentals  (or  Linguals),  t,  d,  th. 

Gutturals  (or  Palatals),  c,  k,  q,  g,  ch. 

5.  The  Liquids  are  1,  r.  These  sounds  were  voiced. 

6.  The  Nasals  are  m,  n.  These  were  voiced.  Besides 
its  ordinary  sound,  n,  when  followed  by  a  guttural  mute, 
also  had  another  sound,  —  that  of  ng  in  sing,  —  the  so- 
called  n  adulterinum  ;  as,  — 

anceps,  double ,  pronounced  angceps. 

7.  The  Spirants  (sometimes  called  Fricatives)  are  f,  s,  h. 
These  were  voiceless. 

8.  The  Semivowels  are  j  and  v.  These  were  voiced. 

9.  Double  Consonants  are  x  and  z.  Of  these,  x  was 
equivalent  to  cs,  while  the  equivalence  of  z  is  uncertain. 
See  §  3.  3* 

10.  The  following  table  will  indicate  the  relations  of  the 


consonant  sounds 

•  __ 

• 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Aspirates. 

* 

P, 

b, 

ph, 

(Labials). 

Mutes, 

t, 

a, 

th, 

(Dentals). 

• 

c,  k,  q, 

g, 

ch, 

(Gutturals). 

Liquids, 

b  r, 

Nasals, 

* 

f, 

m,  n, 

(Labial). 

Spirants, 

s, 

(Dental). 

_ 

h, 

(Guttural). 

Semivowels, 

j>  v. 

a.  The  Double  Consonants,  x  and  z,  being  compound  sounds, 
do  not  admit  of  classification  in  the  above  table. 


Sounds  of  the  Letters. 


3 


SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

3.  The  following  pronunciation  (often  called  Roman)  is 
substantially  that  employed  by  the  Romans  at  the  height 
of  their  civilization ;  i.e.  roughly,  from  50  b.c.  to  50  a.d. 

1.  Vowels. 

a  as  in  father ; 
e  as  in  they ; 

1  as  in  machine  ; 

6  as  in  note ; 
u  as  in  rude ; 
y  like  French  u ,  German  u. 

2.  Diphthongs. 

ae  like  ai  in  aisle ; 
oe  like  oi  in  oil ; 
ei  as  in  rein ; 
au  like  ow  in  kow; 

3.  Consonants. 

b,  d,  f,  h,  k,  1,  m,  n,  p,  qu  are  pronounced  as  in  English,  except  that 
bs,  bt  are  pronounced  fis,  fit. 
c  is  always  pronounced  as  k. 

t  is  always  a  plain  t,  never  with  the  sound  of  sh  as  in  Eng.  oration. 
g  always  as  in  get ;  when  ngu  precedes  a  vowel,  gu  has  the  sound  of 
gw,  as  in  anguis,  languidus. 
j  has  the  sound  of y  as  iny^. 

r  was  probably  slightly  trilled  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
s  always  voiceless  as  in  sin ;  in  suadeo,  suavis,  suesco,  and  in  com¬ 
pounds  and  derivatives  of  these  words,  su  has  the  sound  of  sw. 
v  like  w. 

x  always  like  ks ;  never  like  Eng.  gz  or  z. 

z  uncertain  in  sound ;  possibly  like  Eng.  zd,  possibly  like  z.  The 
latter  sound  is  recommended. 

The  aspirates  ph,  ch,  th  were  pronounced  very  nearly  like  our  stressed 
Eng.  fi,  c,  t  —  so  nearly  so,  that,  for  practical  purposes,  the  latter 
sounds  suffice. 

Doubled  letters,  like  11,  mm,  tt,  etc.,  should  be  so  pronounced  that 
both  members  of  the  combination  are  distinctly  articulated. 


tt  as  in  the  first  syllable  of  ahd  ; 
e  as  in  met ; 

1  as  in  fiin ; 

6  as  in  obey,  melody ; 
ii  as  in  fiut ; 


eu  with  its  two  elements,  e  and  tt, 
pronounced  in  rapid  succession  ; 
ui  occurs  almost  exclusively  in  cui 
and  huic.  These  words  are  pro¬ 
nounced  as  though  written  kwee 
and  wheek. 


4 


Sounds ,  Accent,  Quantity. 


SYLLABLES. 

4.  There  are  as  many  syllables  in  a  Latin  word  as  there 
are  separate  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

In  the  division- of  words  into  syllables, — 

1.  A  single  consonant  is  joined  to  the  following  vowel;  as,  vo-lat, 
ge-rit,  pe-rit,  a-dest. 

2.  Doubled  consonants,  like  tt,  ss,  etc.,  are  always  separated ;  as, 
vit-ta,  mis-sus. 

3.  Other  combinations  of  two  or  more  consonants  are  regularly 
separated,  and  the  first  consonant  of  the  combination  is  joined  with  the 
preceding  vowel ;  as,  ma-gis-trl,  dig-nus,  mon-strum,  sis-te-re. 

4.  An  exception  to  Rule  3  occurs  when  the  two  consonants  consist 
of  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r  (pi,  cl,  tl ;  pr,  cr,  tr,  etc.).  In  such  cases 
both  consonants  are  regularly  joined  to  the  following  vowel ;  as,  a-grl, 
vo-lu-cris,  pa-tris,  ma-tris.  Yet  if  the  1  or  r  introduces  the  second 
part  of  a  compound,  the  two  consonants  are  separated ;  as,  ab-rumpo, 
ad-latus. 

5.  The  double  consonant  x  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel;  as, 
ax-is,  tex-I. 

QUANTITY. 

5.  A.  Quantity  of  Vowels. 

A  vowel  is  long  or  short  according  to  the  length  of  time  required  foi 
its  pronunciation.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  Latin  vowels.  This  knowledge  must  be  gained,  in  large 
measure,  by  experience  ;  but  the  following  principles  are  of  aid  :  — 

1.  A  vowel  is  long,1  — 

a)  before  nf  or  ns  ;  as,  Infans,  Inferior,  consumo,  censeo. 
Insum. 

b)  when  the  result  of  contraction  ;  as,  nllum  for  nihilum. 

2.  A  vowel  is  short, — 

a)  before  nt,  nd  ;  as,  amant,  amandus.  A  few  exceptions  occur 
in  compounds  whose  first  member  has  a  long  vowel ;  as,  11611- 
dum  (non  dum). 

b)  before  another  vowel,  or  h  ;  as,  meus,  traho.  Some  excep¬ 
tions  occur,  chiefly  in  proper  names  derived  from  the  Greek ; 
as,  Aeneas. 

1  In  this  book,  long  vowels  are  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line  above  them ;  as, 
a,  i,  6,  etc.  Vowels  not  thus  marked  are  short.  Occasionally  a  curve  is  set 
above  short  vowels;  as,  e,  u. 


'Accent. 


5 


B.  Quantity  of  Syllables. 

Syllables  are  distinguished  as  long  or  short  according  to  the  length 
of  time  required  for  their  pronunciation. 

1.  A  syllable  is  long,1  — 

a)  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel ;  as,  mater,  regnum,  dlus. 
b')  if  it  contains  a  diphthong ;  as,  causae,  foedus. 
c)  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  x,  z,  or  any  two  con¬ 
sonants  (except  a  mute  with  1  or  r)  ;  as,  axis,  gaza,  resto. 

2.  A  syllable  is  short,  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  by  a  single  consonant ;  as,  mea,  amat. 

3.  Sometimes  a  syllable  varies  in  quantity,  viz.  when  its  vowel  is 
short  and  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  1  or  r,  i.e.  by  pi,  cl,  tl ;  pr,  cr, 
tr,  etc. ;  as,  agrl,  volhcris.2  Such  syllables  are  called  common.  In 
prose  they  were  regularly  short,  but  in  verse  they  might  be  treated  as 
long  at  the  option  of  the  poet. 

Note.  —  These  distinctions  of  long  and  short  are  not  arbitrary  and 
artificial,  but  are  purely  natural.  Thus,  a  syllable  containing  a  short 
vowel  followed  by  two  consonants,  as  ng,  is  long,  because  such  a  syl¬ 
lable  requires  more  time  for  its  pronunciation ;  while  a  syllable  con¬ 
taining  a  short  vowel  followed  by  one  consonant  is  short,  because  it 
takes  less  time  to  pronounce  it.  In  case  of  the  common  syllables, 
the  mute  and  the  liquid  blend  so  easily  as  to  produce  a  combination 
which  takes  scarcely  more  time  than  a  single  consonant.  Yet  by  sepa¬ 
rating  the  two  elements  (as  ag-rl)  the  poets  were  able  to  use  such 
syllables  as  long. 

ACCENT. 

6.  1.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  first;  as,  t£git, 
mOrem. 

2.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  penult 
(next  to  the  last)  if  that  is  a  long  syllable,  otherwise  upon  the  ante¬ 
penult  (second  from  the  last)  ;  as,  amavl,  amantis,  miserum. 

3.  When  the  enclitics  -que,  -ne,  -ve,  -ce,  -met,  -dum  are  appended 
to  words,  if  the  syllable  preceding  the  enclitic  is  long  (either  originally 
or  as  a  result  of  adding  the  enclitic)  it  is  accented ;  as,  miserdque, 
hominisque.  But  if  the  syllable  still  remains  short  after  the  enclitic 
has  been  added,  it  is  not  accented  unless  the  word  originally  took 
the  accent  on  the  antepenult.  Thus,  p6rtaque  ;  but  mfseraque. 

1  To  avoid  confusion,  the  quantity  of  syllables  is  not  indicated  by  any  sign. 

2  But  if  the  1  or  r  introduces  the  second  part  of  a  compound,  the  preceding 
syllable  is  always  long ;  as,  abrumpo. 


6 


Sounds,  Accent ,  'Quantity. 


4.  Sometimes  the  final  -e  of  -ne  and  -ce  disappears,  but  without 

affecting  the  accent;  as,  tanton,  istic,  iliac,  viden  (for  videsne). 

/  / 

5.  In  utraque,  each,  and  pleraque,  most ,  -que  is  not  properly  an 
enclitic ;  yet  these  words  accent  the  penult,  owing  to  the  influence 
of  their  other  cases,  —  uterque,  utrumque,  plerumque. 


VOWEL  CHANGES.1 

7.  1.  In  Compounds, — 

a)  e  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  1 ;  as,  — 

colligo  for  con-lego. 

h)  a  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  i  ;  as, — 

adigo  for  ad-ago. 

c )  a  before  two  consonants  becomes  e  ;  as, — 

expers  for  ex-pars. 

d)  ae  becomes  I ;  as,  — 

conqulro  for  con-quaer5. 

o')  au  becomes  u,  sometimes  o  ;  as, — 

concludo  for  con-claudo ; 

explodo  for  ex-plaudo. 


2.  Contraction.  Concurrent  vowels  were  frequently  contracted  into 
one  long  vowel.  The  first  of  the  two  vowels  regularly  prevailed  ;  as,  — 


tres  for  tre-es  ; 
malo  for  ma(v)el5 ; 
amasti  for  ama(v)istl; 
debeo  for  de(h)abeo; 
nil  for  nihil ; 


copia  for  co-opia ; 
cogd  for  co-ago ; 
com5  for  co-emo  ; 
junior  for  ju(v)enior. 


3.  Parasitic  Vowels.  In  the  environment  of  liquids  and  nasals  a 
parasitic  vowel  sometimes  develops  ;  as,  — 

vinculum  for  earlier  vinclum. 

So  periculum,  saeculum. 


4.  Syncope.  Sometimes  a  vowel  drops  out  by  syncope  ;  as, — 

ardor  for  aridor  (compare  aridus')  ; 
valde  for  valide  (compare  validus). 


1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


Peculiarities  of  Orthography. 


7 

CONSONANT  CHANGES.1 

8.  I.  Rhotacism.  An  original  s  between  vowels  became  r;  as, — 

arbos,  Gen.  arboris  (for  arbosis)  ; 
genus,  Gen.  generis  (for  genesis)  ; 
dirimo  (for  dis-emo). 

2.  dt,  tt,  ts  each  give  s  or  ss  ;  as,  — 

pensum  for  pend-tum ; 
versam  for  vert-tum ; 
miles  for  mllet-s ; 
sessus  for  sedtus ; 
passus  for  pattus. 

3.  Final  consonants  were  often  omitted  ;  as,  — 

cor  for  cord  ; 
lac  for  lact. 

4.  Assimilation  of  Consonants.  Consonants  are  often  assimi¬ 
lated  to  a  following  sound.  Thus :  accurro  (adc-)  ;  aggero  (adg-)  ; 
assero  (ads-)  ;  allatus  (adl-)  ;  apporto  (adp-)  ;  attull  (adt-) ; 
arrldeo  (adr-)  ;  affero  (adf-)  ;  occurro  (obc-)  ;  supponS  (subp-)  ; 
offerS  (obf-)  ;  corruo  (comr-)  ;  collatus  (coml-) ;  etc. 

5.  Partial  Assimilation.  Sometimes  the  assimilation  is  only 
partial.  Thus :  — 

a )  b  before  s  or  t  becomes  p  ;  as,  — 

scrlpsl  (scrib-sl),  scrlptum  (scrlb-tum). 

b)  g  before  s  or  t  becomes  c  ;  as,  — 
actus  (ag-tus). 

c )  m  before  a  dental  or  guttural  becomes  n  ;  as,  — 

eundem  (eum-dem)  ;  prlnceps  (prim-ceps). 

4 

PECULIARITIES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

9.  Many  words  have  variable  orthography. 

1.  Sometimes  the  different  forms  belong  to  different  periods  of  the 
language.  Thus,  quom,  voltus,  volnus,  volt,  etc .,  were  the  prevail- 


1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


8 


Sounds ,  Accent ,  Quantity \ 


ing  forms  almost  down  to  the  Augustan  age ;  after  that,  cum,  vultus, 
vulnus,  vult,  etc.  So  optumus,  maxumus,  lubet,  lubldo,  etc., 
down  to  about  the  same  era ;  later,  optimus,  maximus,  libet,  libido, 
etc. 

2.  In  some  words  the  orthography  varies  at  one  and  the  same 
period  of  the  language.  Examples  are  exspecto,  expecto ;  exsisto, 
existo  ;  epistula,  epistola  ;  adulescens,  adolescens  ;  paulus,  paul- 
lus ;  cottldie,  cotldie;  and,  particularly,  prepositional  compounds, 
which  often  made  a  concession  to  the  etymology  in  the  spelling;  as, — 

ad-gero  or  aggero ;  ad-sero  or  assero ; 

ad-lici5  or  allicio ;  in-latus  or  illatus ; 

ad-rogans  or  arrogans  ;  sub-moveo  or  summoveo  ; 

and  many  others. 

3.  Compounds  of  jacio  were  usually  written  eicio,  deicio,  adicio, 
obicio,  etc.,  but  were  probably  pronounced  as  though  written  adjicio, 
objicio,  etc. 

4.  Adjectives  and  nouns  in  -quus,  -quum ;  -vus,  -vum  ;  -uus, 
-uum  preserved  the  earlier  forms  in  -quos,  -quom ;  -vos,  -vom ; 
-uos,  -uom,  down  through  the  Ciceronian  age ;  as,  antlquos,  antl- 
qirom  ;  saevos  ;  perpetuos  ;  equos  ;  servos.  Similarly  verbs  in 
the  3d  plural  present  indicative  exhibit  the  terminations  -quont, 
-quontur  ;  -vont,  -vontur  ;  -uont,  -uontur,  for  the  same  period  ;  as, 
relinquont,  loquontur  ;  vivont,  metuont. 

The  older  spelling,  while  generally  followed  in  editions  of  Plautus 
and  Terence,  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in  our  prose  texts. 


Part  II. 


— « — 

INFLECTIONS. 

— ♦ — 

10.  The  Parts  of  Speech  in  Latin  are  the  same  as 
in  English,  viz.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  Verbs, 
Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections; 
but  the  Latin  has  no  article. 

11.  Of  these  eight  parts  of  speech  the  first  four  are 
capable  of  Inflection,  i.e.  of  undergoing  change  of  form 
to  express  modifications  of  meaning.  In  case  of  Nouns, 
Adjectives,  and  Pronouns,  this  process  is  called  Declen¬ 
sion  ;  in  case  of  Verbs,  Conjugation. 


Chapter  I.  —  Declension. 

A.  NOUNS. 

12.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person ,  place ,  thing ,  or 
quality  ;  as,  Caesar,  Caesar;  Roma,  Rome ;  penna,  feather ; 
virtus,  courage. 

1.  Nouns  are  either  Proper  or  Common.  Proper  nouns  are  perma¬ 
nent  names  of  persons  or  places  ;  as,  Caesar,  Roma.  Other  nouns 
are  Common;  as,  penna,  virtus. 

2.  Nouns  are  also  distinguished  as  Concrete  or  Abstract. 

a)  Concrete  nouns  are  those  which  designate  individual  objects  ; 
as.  mons,  mountain  ;  pes,  foot ;  dies,  day  ;  mens,  mind. 

9 


10 


Inflections. 


Under  concrete  nouns  are  included,  also,  collective  nouns  ; 
as,  legio,  legion  ;  comitatus,  retinue, 
b )  Abstract  nouns  designate  qualities  ;  as,  cons  tan  tia,  stead - 
fastness ;  paupertas,  poverty. 

GENDER  OF  NOUNS. 

13.  There  are  three  Genders,  —  Masculine,  Feminine, 
and  Neuter.  Gender  in  Latin  is  either  natural  or  gram¬ 
matical. 

Natural  Gender. 

14.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  natural  when  it  is  based 
upon  sex.  Natural  gender  is  confined  entirely  to  names 
of  persons  ;  and  these  are  — 

1.  Masculine,  if  they  denote  males  ;  as, — 

nauta,  sailor ;  agricola,  farmer. 

2.  Feminine,  if  they  denote  females  ;  as, — 

mater,  mother ;  regina,  queen. 

Grammatical  Gender. 

15.  Grammatical  gender  is  determined  not  by  sex,  but 
by  the  general  signification  of  the  word,  or  the  ending  of 
its  Nominative  Singular.  By  grammatical  gender,  nouns 
denoting  things  or  qualities  are  often  Masculine  or  Femi¬ 
nine,  simply  by  virtue  of  their  signification  or  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.  The  following  are  the  gen¬ 
eral  principles  for  determining  grammatical  gender  :  — 

A.  Gender  determined  by  Signification. 

1.  Names  of  Rivers ,  Winds ,  and  Months  'are  Mascu¬ 
line  ;  as,  — 

Sequana,  Seine  ;  Eurus,  east  wind ;  Aprllis,  April. 

2.  Names  of  Trees ,  and  such  names  of  Towns  and 
Islands  as  end  in  -ug,  are  Feminine  ;  as,  — 

quercus,  oak ;  Corinthus,  Corinth  ;  Rhodus,  Rhodes. 


Number.  —  Cases. 


ii 


Other  names  of  towns  and  islands  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings 
(see  B,  below)  ;  as,  — 

Delphi,  m. ;  Leuctra,  n. ;  Tibur,  n. ;  Carthago,  f. 

3.  Indeclinable  nouns,  also  infinitives  and  phrases,  are 
Neuter;  as, — 

nihil,  nothing ;  nefas,  wrong;  amare,  to  love . 

Note.  —  Exceptions  to  the  above  principles  sometimes  occur  ;  as,  Allia  (the 
river) ,  f. 


B.  Gender  deter niined  by  Ending  o  f  Nominative  Singular. 

The  gender  of  other  nouns  is  determined  by  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.1 

Note  I .  —  Common  Gender.  Certain  nouns  are  sometimes  Mascu¬ 
line,  sometimes  Feminine.  Thus,  sacerdos  may  mean  either  priest  or 
priestess ,  and  is  Masculine  or  Feminine  accordingly.  So  also  clvis, 
citizen;  parens,  parent;  etc.  The  gender  of  such  nouns  is  said  to  be 
common. 

Note  2.  —  Names  of  animals  usually  have  grammatical  gender, 
according  to  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular,  but  the  one  form 
may  designate  either  the  male  or  female  ;  as,  anser,  m.,  goose  or  gan¬ 
der.  So  vulpes,  i.yfox;  aquila,  f.,  eagle. 

NUMBER. 

16.  The  Latin  has  two  Numbers,  —  the  Singular  and 
Plural.  The  Singular  denotes  one  object;  the  Plural, 
more  than  one. 

CASES. 

17.  There  are  six  Cases  in  Latin :  — 

Nominative,  Case  of  Subject ; 

Genitive,  Objective  with  of,  or  Possessive ; 

Dative,  Objective  with  to  or  for; 

Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object ; 

Vocative,  Case  of  Address; 

Ablative.  Objective  with  by,  from,  in,  with. 


1  The  great  majority  of  all  Latin  nouns  come  under  this  category.  The  prin¬ 
ciples  for  determining  their  gender  are  given  under  the  separate  declensions. 


12 


Inflections. 


1.  Locative.  Vestiges  of  another  case,  the  Locative  (denoting 
place  where),  occur  in  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words. 

2.  Oblique  Cases.  The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Abla¬ 
tive  are  called  Oblique  Cases. 

3.  Stem  and  Case-Endings.  The  different  cases  are  formed  by 
appending  certain  case-endings  to  a  fundamental  part  called  the 
Stem.1  Thus,  portam  (Accusative  Singular)  is  formed  by  adding 
the  case-ending  -m  to  the  stem  porta-.  But  in  most  cases  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem  has  coalesced  so  closely  with  the  actual  case-ending 
that  the  latter  has  become  more  or  less  obscured.  The  apparent  case¬ 
ending  thus  resulting  is  called  a  termination. 


THE  FIVE  DECLENSIONS. 

18.  There  are  five  Declensions  in  Latin,  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  final  letter  of  the  Stem,  and  also 
by  the  Termination  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as  follows  :  — 


Declension. 

Final  Letter  of  Stem. 

Gen.  Termination. 

First 

a 

-ae 

Second 

6 

-I 

Third 

I1 

[  Some  consonant 

-is 

Fourth 

ti 

-us 

Fifth 

e 

w 

-el 

Cases  alike  in  Form. 

19.  !.  The  Vocative  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative,  except  in 
the  Singular  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the  Second  Declension. 

2.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  always  alike. 

3.  In  Neuters  the  Accusative  and  Nominative  are  always  alike,  and 
in  the  Plural  end  in  -a. 

4.  In  the  Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Declensions,  the  Accusative 
Plural  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative. 


1  The  Stem  is  often  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form  called  the  Root. 
Thus,  the  stem  porta- goes  back  to  the  root  per-,  por-.  Roots  are  usually  mono¬ 
syllabic.  The  addition  made  to  a  root  to  form  a  stem  is  called  a  Suffix.  Thus 
in  porta-  the  suffix  is  -ta. 


First  Declension. 


13 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 

a-Stems. 

20.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  regu¬ 
larly  end,  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  in  -a,  weakened 
from  -a,  and  are  of  the  Feminine  Gender.  They  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — - 

Porta,  gate]  stem,  porta-. 

SINGULAR. 


Cases. 

Meanings. 

Terminations. 

Nom. 

porta 

a  gate  (as  subject) 

-a 

Gen. 

portae 

of  a  gate 

-ae 

Dat. 

portae 

to  or  for  a  gate 

-ae 

Acc. 

portam 

a  gate  (as  object) 

-am 

Voc. 

porta 

0  gate ! 

-a 

Abl. 

porta 

with ,  by,  fro)n,  in  a  gate 

-a 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

portae 

gates  (as  subject) 

-ae 

Gen. 

portarum 

of  gates 

-arum 

Dat. 

portis 

to  or  for  gates 

-Is 

Acc. 

portas 

gates  (as  object) 

-as 

Voc. 

portae 

0  gates! 

-ae 

Abl. 

portis 

with ,  by,  from,  in  gates 

-Is 

1.  The  Latin  has  no  article,  and  porta  may  mean  either  a  gate  or 
the  gate',  and  in  the  Plural,  gates  or  the  gates. 

Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension. 

21.  1.  Exceptions  in  Gender.  Nouns  denoting  males  are  Mascu¬ 
line  :  as,  nauta,  sailor ;  agricola,  farmer ;  also  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea. 

2.  Rare  Case-Endings, — 

a)  An  old  form  of  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -as  is  preserved  in 
the  combination  pater  familias, of  a  family  ;  also  in 
fnater  familias,  filius  familias,  fllia  familias.  But  the 
regular  form  of  the  Genitive  in  -ae  is  also  admissible  in  these 
expressions  ;  as,  pater  familiae. 

b)  In  poetry  a  Genitive  in  -al  also  occurs  ;  as,  aulal. 


14 


Inflections. 


c )  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -ae  ;  as,  Romae,  at  Rome. 

d)  A  Genitive  Plural  in  -urn  instead  of  -arum  sometimes  occurs  ; 
as,  Dardanidum  instead  of  Dardanidarum.  This  termina¬ 
tion  -um  is  not  a  contraction  of  -arum,  but  represents  an 
entirely  different  case-ending. 

e)  Instead  of  the  regular  ending  -Is,  we  usually  find  -abus 
in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  dea,  goddess ,  and  fllia, 
daughter,  especially  when  it  is  important  to  distinguish  these 
nouns  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  deus,  god,  and  fllius, 
son.  A  few  other  words  sometimes  have  the  same  peculiarity ; 
as,  llbertabus  (from  llberta,  freedwoman ),  equabus 
(mares),  to  avoid  confusion  with  llbertls  (from  llbertus, 
freedma?i)  and  equis  (from  equus,  horse). 


Greek  Nouns. 


22.  These  end  in  -e  (Feminine);  -as  and  -es  (Masculine). 
In  the  Plural  they  are  declined  like  regular  Latin  nouns 
of  the  First  Declension.  In  the  Singular  they  are  declined 
as  follows :  — 


Archias,  Archias.  Epitome,  epitome. 

No7)i.  Archias  epitome 

Gen.  Archiae  epitomes 

Dat.  Archiae  epitomae 

Acc.  Archiam  (or  -an)  epitomen 

Voc.  Archia  epitome 

Abl.  Archia  epitome 


Cometes,  comet. 

cometes 
cometae 
cometae 
cometen 
comete  (or  -&) 
comete  (or  -a) 


I.  But  most  Greek  nouns  in  -e  become  regular  Latin  nouns  in  -a, 
and  are  declined  like  porta;  as,  grammatica,  grammar]  musica, 
music ;  rhetoric  a,  rhetoric. 


2.  Some  other  peculiarities  occur,  especially  in  poetry. 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 

O-Stems. 

23.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  end 
in  -us,  -er,  -ir,  Masculine;  -um,  Neuter.  Originally  -us  in 
the  Nominative  of  the  Masculines  was  -os;  and  -um  of  the 
Neuters  -om.  So  also  in  the  Accusative. 


Second  Declension.  1 5 

Nouns  in  -us  and  -um  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

Hortus,  garden  ;  Bellum,  war ; 

stem,  hortd-.  stem,  bello-. 

SINGULAR. 

Termination.  Termination. 


No7n. 

hortus 

-us 

bellum 

-um 

Gen. 

hortl 

-I 

belli 

-I 

Dat. 

hortd 

-6 

bello 

-6 

Acc. 

h  or  turn 

-um 

bellum 

-um 

Voc. 

horte 

-e 

bellum 

-um 

Abl. 

hortd 

-6 

bello 

-0 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

hortl 

-I 

bella 

-a 

Gen. 

hortorum 

-drum 

bellorum 

-orum 

Dat. 

hortls 

-Is 

bellls 

-Is 

Acc. 

hortos 

-os 

bella 

-a 

Voc. 

hortl 

-1 

bella 

-a 

Abl. 

hortls 

-Is 

bellls 

-Is 

Nouns  in  -er  and  -ir  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Puer,  boy ; 

Ager,  field ; 

Vir,  man ; 

• 

stem,  puerd-. 

stem,  agrd-. 

stem,  vird-. 

SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

Nom. 

puer 

ager 

vir 

Wanting 

Gen. 

puerl 

agrl 

virl 

-I 

Dat. 

puerd 

agrd 

vird 

-d 

Acc. 

puerum 

agrum 

virum 

-um 

Voc. 

puer 

ager 

vir 

Wanting 

Abl. 

puerd 

agrd 

vird 

-6 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

puerl 

agrl 

virl 

-I 

Gen. 

puerorum 

agrorum 

virorum 

-drum 

Dat. 

puerls 

agrls 

virls 

-Is 

Acc. 

pueros 

agros 

viros 

-os 

Voc. 

puerl 

agrl 

virl 

-I 

Abl. 

puerls 

agrls 

virls 

-Is 

.  Note 

that  in  words  of  the  type  of  puer  and  vir 

the  final  vowel 

of  the  stem  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular. 


i6 


Inflections . 


In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  ager,  the  stem  is  furthel 
modified  by  the  development  of  e  before  r. 

2.  The  following  nouns  in  -er  are  declined  like  puer :  adulter, 
adulterer;  gener,  son-in-law ;  Liber,  Bacchus ;  socer,  father-in-law  ; 
vesper,  evening;  and  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger,  as  signifer,  armiger. 


Nouns  in  - vus ,  -vum,  -quus. 

24.  Nouns  ending  in  the  Nominative  Singular  in  -vus,  -vum, 
-quus,  exhibited  two  types  of  inflection  in  the  classical  Latin,  —  an 
earlier  and  a  later,  —  as  follows  :  — 

Earlier  Inflection  {including  Caesar  and  Cicero'). 

Servos,  m.,  slave.  Aevom,  n.,  age.  Equos,  m.,  horse. 


SINGULAR. 


Nom. 

servos 

aevom 

equos 

Gen. 

servl 

aevl 

equl 

Dat. 

serv5 

aevo 

equo 

Acc. 

servom 

aevom 

equom 

Voc. 

serve 

aevom 

eque 

Abl. 

servo 

aevo 

equo 

Later  Inflection  {after  Cicero). 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

servus 

aevum 

equus 

Gen. 

servl 

aevl 

equl 

Dat. 

servo 

aevo 

equo 

Acc. 

servum 

aevum 

equum 

Voc. 

serve 

aevum 

eque 

Abl. 

servo 

aevo 

equ5 

1.  The  Plural  of  these  nouns  is  regular,  and  always  uniform. 

Peculiarities  of  Inflection  in  the  Second  Declension. 

25.  i.  Proper  names  in  -ius  regularly  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
in  -I  (instead  of  -ii),  and  the  Vocative  Singular  in  -I  (for  -ie)  ;  as, 
Vergill,  of  Virgil ,  or  O  Virgil  (instead  of  Vergilil,  Vergilie).  In 
such  words  the  accent  stands  upon  the  penult,  even  though  that  be 
short.  Nouns  in  -ajus,  -ejus  form  the  Gen.  in  -ai,  -el,  as  Pompejus, 
Pom  pel. 

2.  Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium,  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus  (31  b.c.),  regularly  formed  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -i 
(instead  of  -ii)  ;  as,  — : 


Second  Declension. 


17 


Nom.  ingenium  filius 

Gen.  ingenl  fill 

These  Genitives  accent  the  penult,  even  when  it  is  short. 

3.  Filius  forms  the  Vocative  Singular  in  -I  (for  -ie) ;  viz.  fill, 
0  son  ! 

4.  Deus,  lacks  the  Vocative  Singular.  The  Plural  is  inflected 
as  follows :  — 


Nom. 

dl 

(del) 

Gen. 

deorum 

(deum) 

Eat. 

dls 

(dels) 

Acc. 

deos 

Voc. 

dl 

(del) 

Abl. 

dls 

(dels) 

5.  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -I;  as,  Corinth!,  at  Corinth. 

6.  The  Genitive  Plural  has  -um,  instead  of  -drum,  — 

a )  in  words  denoting  money  and  measure ;  as,  talentum,  of 
talents',  modium,  of  pecks',  sestertium,  of  sesterces. 

b)  in  duumvir,  triumvir,  decemvir ;  as,  duumvirum. 

c )  sometimes  in  other  words ;  as,  liberum,  of  the  children ; 
socium,  of  the  allies. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Second  Declension. 

26.  1.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine  by  exception :  — 

a)  Names  of  towns,  islands,  trees  —  according  to  the  general 
rule  laid  down  in  §  15.  2;  also  some  names  of  countries;  as, 
Aegyptus,  Egypt. 

b)  Five  special  words,  — 

alvus,  belly ; 
carbasus,yftnr; 
colus,  distaff ; 
humus,  groimd; 
vannus,  winnowing-fan, 

c )  A  few  Greek  Feminines  ;  as, — 

atomus,  atom  ; 
diphthongus,  diphthong. 

2.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Neuter:  — 

pelagus,  sea ; 
virus,  poiso?i ; 
vulgus,  crowd. 


i8 


Inflections . 


Greek  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension. 


27.  These  end  in  -os,  -os,  Masculine  or  Feminine;  and 
-on,  Neuter.  They  are  mainly  proper  names,  and  are  de¬ 
clined  as  follows :  — 


Barbitos,  m.  and  f., 

Androgeos,  m., 

Ilion,  n., 

lyre. 

Androgeos. 

Trov. 

✓ 

Nom. 

barbitQ§- 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Gen. 

barbiti 

L 

Androgeo,  -I 

Tlii 

Dat. 

barbitd 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

Ace. 

barbiton 

Androgeo,  -on 

Ilion 

Voc. 

barbite 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Abl. 

barbito 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

1.  Nouns  in  -os  sometimes  form  the  Accusative  Singular  in  -um, 
instead  of  -on  ;  as,  Delum,  Delos. 

2.  The  Plural  of  Greek  nouns,  when  it  occurs,  is  usually  regular. 

3.  For  other  rare  forms  of  Greek  nouns  the  lexicon  may  be  con¬ 
sulted. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 

28.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  -a,  -e,  -I,  -6, 
-y,  -c,  -l,  -n,  -r,  -s,  -t,  -x.  The  Third  Declension  includes 
several  distinct  classes  of  Stems,  — 

I.  Pure  Consonant-Stems. 

II.  i-Stems. 

III.  Consonant-Stems  which  have  partially  adapted 
themselves  to  the  inflection  of  i-Stems. 

IV.  A  very  few  Stems  ending  in  a  long  vowel  or  a 
diphthong. 

V.  Irregular  Nouns. 


I.  Consonant-Stems. 

1.  In  these  the  stem  appears  in  its  unaltered  form 
in  all  the  oblique  cases ;  so  that  the  actual  case-endings 
may  be  clearly  recognized. 


Third  Declension. 


19 

2.  Consonant-Stems  fall  into  several  natural  subdivisions,  according 
as  the  stem  ends  in  a  Mute,  Liquid,  Nasal,  or  Spirant. 


A.  Mute-Stems. 

30.  Mute-Stems  may  end,  — 

1.  In  a  Labial  (p)  ;  as,  prlncep-s. 

2.  In  a  Guttural  (g  or  c)  ;  as,  remex  (remeg  -s)  ;  dux  (duc-s). 

3.  In  a  Dental  (d  or  t)  ;  as,  lapis  (lapid-s)  ;  miles  (mllet-s). 


1.  Stems  in  a  Labial  Mute  (p). 
31.  Prlnceps,  m.,  chief. 


SINGULAR. 

Termination. 


Nom. 

prlnceps 

-s 

Gen. 

prlncipis 

-is 

Dat. 

prlncipl 

-I 

Acc. 

prlncipem 

-em 

Voc. 

prlnceps 

-s 

Abl. 

prlncipe 

-e 

PLURAL. 

Nojn. 

prlncipes 

-es 

Gen. 

principum 

-um 

Dat. 

prlncipibus 

-ibus 

Acc. 

prlncipes 

-es 

Voc. 

prlncipes 

-es 

Abl. 

prlncipibus 

-ibus 

2.  Stems  in  a  Guttural  Mute  (g,  c). 

32.  In  these  the  termination -s  of  the  Nominative  Singular  unites 
with  the  guttural,  thus  producing -x. 


Remex,  m. 

,  rower. 

Dux,  c., 

leader. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL, 

Nom. 

remex 

remiges 

dux 

duces 

Gen. 

remigis 

remigum 

ducis 

ducum 

Dat. 

remigl 

remigibus 

duel 

ducibus 

Acc. 

remigem 

remiges 

ducem 

duces 

Voc. 

remex 

remiges 

dux 

duces 

Abl. 

remige 

remigibus 

duce 

ducibus 

20 


Inflections. 


3.  Stems  in  a  Dental  Mute  (d,  t). 

33.  In  these  the  final  d  or  t  of  the  stem  disappears  in  the  Nomina¬ 
tive  Singular  before  the  ending  -s. 


Lapis,  m. 

,  stone. 

Miles,  m. 

,  soldier. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL.  SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  lapis 

lapides 

miles 

mllites 

Gen.  lapidis 

lapidum 

mllitis 

militum 

Dat.  lapid! 

lapidibus 

mllitl 

militibus 

Acc.  lapidem 

lapides 

mllitern 

mllites 

Voc.  lapis 

lapides 

miles 

mllites 

Abl.  lapide 

lapidibus 

mllite 

militibus 

B. 

Liquid  Stems. 

34.  These  end  in 

-1  or  -r. 

Vigil,  m., 

Victor,  m., 

Aequor,  n.. 

watchman. 

conqueror. 

sea. 

SINGULAR. 

No7n.'  vigil 

victor 

aequor 

Gen.  vigilis 

victoris 

aequoris 

Dat.  vigill 

victor! 

aequor! 

Acc.  vigilem 

victorem 

aequor 

Voc.  vigil 

victor 

aequor 

Abl.  vigile 

victore 

aequore 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Gen.  vigilum 

victorum 

aequorum 

Dat.  vigilibus 

victoribus 

aequoribus 

Acc.  vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Voc.  vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Abl.  vigilibus 

victoribus 

aequoribus 

1.  Masculine  and  Feminine  stems  ending  in  a  liquid  form  the  Nomi¬ 
native  and  Vocative  Singular  without  termination. 

2.  The  termination  is  also  lacking  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  all  neuters  of  the  Third  Declension. 


Third  Declension. 


21 


C.  Nasal  Stems. 

35.  These  end  in  -n,1  which  often  disappears  in  the  Nom.  Sing. 


Leo,  m.,  lion. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nomen,  n.,  name. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom. 

leo 

leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Gen. 

leonis 

leonum 

nominis 

nominum 

Dat. 

leonl 

leonibus 

no  mini 

nominibus 

Ace. 

leonem 

leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Voc. 

leo 

leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Abl. 

leone 

leonibus 

nomine 

nominibus 

D.  s-S terns. 

S.  Mos,  m.,  ctistom. 

Genus,  n., 

race. 

Honor,  m.,  honor- 

SINGULAR. 

. 

Nom. 

mos 

genus 

honor 

Gen. 

moris 

generis 

honoris 

Dat. 

morl  . 

generi 

honorl 

Ace. 

morem 

genus 

honorem 

Voc. 

mos 

genus 

honor 

Abl. 

more 

genere 

honore 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

mores 

genera 

honores 

Gen. 

morum 

generum 

honorum 

Dat. 

moribus 

generibus 

honoribus 

Acc. 

mores 

genera 

honores 

Voc. 

mores 

genera 

honores 

Abl. 

moribus 

generibus 

honoribus 

Note 

that  the  final  s  of  the  stem  becomes  r 

(between  vowels)  in 

oblique  cases. 

In  some 

words  (honor,  color,  and  the  like)  the 

r  of  the  oblique  cases  has,  by  analogy,  crept  into  the  Nominative,  dis¬ 
placing  the  earlier  s,  though  the  forms  honos,  colos,  etc.,  also  occur, 
particularly  in  early  Latin  and  in  poetry. 

1  There  is  only  one  stem  ending  in  -m,  — hiems,  hiemis,  winter. 


22 


Inflections. 


II.  i-Stems. 

A.  Masculine  and  Feminine  \-Stems. 

37.  These  regularly  end  in  -is  in  the  Nominative  Singu¬ 
lar,  and  always  have  -ium  in  the  Genitive  Plural.  Originally 
the  Accusative  Singular  ended  in  -im,  the  Ablative  Singular 
in  -I,  and  the  Accusative  Plural  in  -is ;  but  these  endings 
have  been  largely  displaced  by  -em,  -e,  and  -es,  the  end¬ 
ings  of  Consonant-Stems. 

38.  Tussis,  f.,  cough;  Ignis,  m .,fire;  Hostis,  c.,  eiiemy ; 


stem,  tussi-. 

stem,  igni-. 

stem,  hosti- 

• 

SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

Nom.  tussis 

Ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Gen.  tussis 

Ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Dat.  tussi 

Igni 

hosti 

-i 

Acc.  tussim 

Ignem 

hostem 

-im,  -em 

Voc.  tussis  * 

Ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Abl.  tussi 

Igni  or-e 

hoste 

-e,  -I 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  tusses 

Ignes 

hostes 

-es 

Gen.  tussium 

Ignium 

hostium 

-ium 

Dat.  tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

Acc.  tussis  or  -es 

Ignis  or  -es 

hostis  or 

-es  -is,  -es 

Voc.  tusses 

Ignes 

hostes 

-es 

Abl.  tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

i.  To  the  same  class  belong  — 

apis,  bee. 

cratis,  hurdle. 

f  *securis,  axe. 

auris,  ear. 

*febris ,  fever. 

sementis,  sowing. 

avis,  bird. 

orbis,  circle. 

f  *sitis,  thirst. 

axis,  axle. 

ovis,  sheep, 

torris, 

brand. 

*buris,  plough-beajn. 

pelvis,  basin. 

f  *turris,  tower. 

clavis,  key. 

puppis,  stern. 

trudis,  pole. 

collis,  hill. 

restis,  rope. 

vectis,  lever. 

and  many  others. 


Words  marked  with  a  star  regularly  have  Acc.  -im  ;  those  marked 
with  a  f  regularly  have  Abl.  -I.  Of  the  others,  many  at  times  show 
-im  and  -i.  Town  and  river  names  in  -is  regularly  have  -im,  -I. 


Third  Declension . 


23 


2.  Not  all  nouns  in  -is  are  l-Stems.  Some  are  genuine  consonant- 
stems,  and  have  the  regular  consonant  terminations  throughout,  nota¬ 
bly,  canis,  dog;  juvenis ,  youth! 

3.  Some  genuine  1-Stems  have  become  disguised  in  the  Nominative 
Singular;  as,  pars,  part,  for  par(ti)s;  anas,  duck,  for  ana(ti)s;  so 
also  mors,  death  ;  dos,  dowry;  nox,  night;  sors,  lot ;  mens,  tnind; 
ars,  art  •  gens,  tribe ;  and  some  others. 

B.  Neuter  1-Stems. 

39.  These  end  in  the  Nominative  Singular  in  -e,  -al,  and 
-ar.  They  always  have  -I  in  the  Ablative  Singular,  -ia  in 
the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  Plural,  and  -ium 
in  the  Genitive  Plural,  thus  holding  more  steadfastly  to  the 
i-character  than  do  Masculine  and  Feminine  1-Stems. 


Sedlle,  seat;  Animal,  animal;  Calcar,  spur ; 
stem,  sedlli-.  stem,  animali-.  stem,  calcari- 


SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

Nom. 

sedlle 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

Gen. 

sedilis 

animalis 

calcaris 

-is 

Dat. 

sedlli 

animali 

calcarl 

-I 

Acc. 

sedlle 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

Voc. 

sedile 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

Abl. 

sedlli 

animali 

calcarl 

-I 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Gen. 

sedllium 

animalium 

calcarium 

-ium 

Dat. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Acc. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Voc. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Abl. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

1.  In  most  words  of  this  class  the  final  -i  of  the  stem  is  lost  in  the 
Nominative  Singular;  in  others  it  appears  as  -e. 

2.  Proper  names  in -e  form  the  Ablative  Singular  in -e  ;  as,  Soracte, 
Soracte ;  so  also  sometimes  mare,  sea. 

1  Mensis,  month ,  originally  a  consonant  stem  (mens-),  has  in  the  Genitive 
Plural  both  mensium  and  mensum.  The  Accusative  Plural  is  menses. 


24 


Inflections. 


III.  Consonant-Stems  that  have  partially  adapted  themselves 

to  the  Inflection  of  i-Stems. 

40.  Many  Consonant-Stems  have  so  far  adapted  them¬ 
selves  to  the  inflection  of  I-stems  as  to  take  -ium  in  the 
Genitive  Plural,  and  -is  in  the  Accusative  Plural.  Their 
true  character  as  Consonant-Stems,  however,  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  they  never  take  -im  in  the  Accusative  Singu¬ 
lar,  or  -i  in  the  Ablative  Singular.  The  following  words 
are  examples  of  this  class  :  — 

Caedes,  f.,  slaughter  ;  Arx,  f.,  citadel ;  Linter,  f.,  skiff ; 


stem,  caed-. 

stem,  arc-. 

stem,  lintr-. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

caedes 

arx 

linter 

Gen. 

caedis 

arcis 

lintris 

Dat. 

caedl 

arcl 

lintrl 

Acc. 

caedem 

arcem 

lintrem 

Voc. 

caedes 

arx 

linter 

Abl. 

caede 

arce 

lintre 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

caedes 

arces 

lintres 

Gen. 

caedium 

arcium 

lintrium 

Dat. 

caedibus 

arcibus 

lintribus 

Acc. 

caedes,  -Is 

arces,  -Is 

lintres,  -Is 

Voc. 

caedes 

arces 

lintres 

Abl. 

caedibus 

arcibus 

lintribus 

I.  The  following  classes  of  nouns  belong  here  :  — 

a)  Nouns  in  -es,  with  Genitive  in  -is ;  as,  nubes,  aedes, 
clades,  etc. 

b)  Many  monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  one  or  more 
consonants ;  as,  urbs,  mons,  stirps,  lanx. 

b)  Most  nouns  in  -ns  and  -rs  ;  as,  cliens,  cohors. 

d)  Uter,  venter ;  fur,  lis,  mas,  mus,  nix ;  and  the  Plurals 
-C  t  ^  fauces,  penates^  Optimates,  Samnltes,  Quirltes. 

e )  Sometimes  nouns  in  -tas  with  Genitive  -tatis  ;  as,  clvitas. 
aetas.  Clvitas  usually  has  clvitatium. 


Third  Declension. 


25 


IV.  Stems  in  -if  -u,  and  Diphthongs. 


41.  vis,  f., 

Sus,  c.,  Bos,  c., 

Juppiter,  m., 

force ; 

swine ;  < 

ox ,  cow ; 

Jupiter ; 

stem,  vl-. 

stem,  su-.  stem  bou-. 

stem,  Jou-. 

™  V 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

sus 

bos 

Juppiter 

Gen. 

suis 

bovis 

Jovis 

Dat. 

— 

SUl 

bovl 

JovI 

Acc. 

vim 

suem 

bovem 

Jovem 

Voc. 

vis 

sus 

bos 

Juppiter 

Abl. 

VI 

sue 

bove 

Jove 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

vires 

sues 

boves 

Gen. 

virium 

suum  •< 

1  bovum 
l  bourn 

Dat . 

viribus 

( suibus  < 

( subus  1 

[ bobus 
[ bubus 

Acc. 

vires 

sues 

boves 

Voc. 

virSs 

sues 

boves 

Abl. 

viribus 

f  suibus 

1  subus  < 

[ bbbus 
[ bubus 

1.  Notice  that  the  oblique  cases  of  sus  have  ii  in 

the  root  syllable, 

2.  Grus  is  declined  like  sus,  except  that  the  Dative  and  Ablative 
Plural  are  always  gruibus. 

3.  Juppiter  is  for  Jou-pater,  and  therefore  contains  the  same  stem 
as  in  Jov-is,  Jov-I,  etc. 

4.  Navis  was  originally  a  diphthong  stem  ending  in  au-,  but  it  has 
passed  over  to  the  i-stems  (§  37).  Its  Ablative  often  ends  in  -I. 

V.  Irregular  Nouns. 

42.  Senex,  m.,  old  man.  Caro,  i.,  flesh.  Os,  n.,  bone. 


SINGULAR. 


Nom. 

senex 

card 

os 

Gen. 

senis 

carnis 

ossis 

Dat. 

sen! 

earn! 

ossl 

Acc. 

senem 

carnem 

os 

Voc. 

senex 

caro 

os 

Abl. 

sene 

carne 

osse 

2  6 


Inflections \ 


PLURAL. 


Nom. 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

Gen. 

senum 

carnium 

ossium 

Dat. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

Acc. 

sen§s 

carnes 

ossa 

Voc. 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

Abl. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

1.  Iter,  itineris,  n.,  way,  is  inflected  regularly  throughout  from  the  stem 
itiner-. 

2.  Supellex,  supellectilis,  f.,  furniture,  is  confined  to  the  Singular.  The 
oblique  cases  are  formed  from  the  stem  supellectil-.  The  ablative  has  both 
-I  and  -e. 

3.  Jecur,  n.,  liver,  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  two  stems,  —  jecor-  and 
jecinor-.  Thus,  Gen.  jecoris  or  jecinoris. 

4.  Femur,  n.,  thigh,  usually  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  the  stem  femor-, 
but  sometimes  from  the  stem  femin-.  Thus,  Gen.  femoris  or  feminis. 

General  Principles  of  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

43.  1 .  Nouns  in  -6,  -or,  -os,  -er,  -Ss  are  Masculine. 

2.  Nouns  in  -as,  -es,  -is,  -ys,  -x,  -s  (preceded  by  a  consonant)  ; 
-do,  -go  (Genitive  -inis)  ;  -io  (abstract  and  collective),  -us  (Genitive 
-utis  or  -udis)  are  Feminine. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  -a,  -e,  -i,  -y,  -c,  -1,  -n,  -t,  -ar,  -ur,  -hs  are 
Neuter. 

Chief  Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

44.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Masculines. 

1.  Nouns  in  -5. 

a.  Feminine:  card,  flesh. 

2.  Nouns  in  -or. 

a.  Feminine:  arbor,  tree. 

b.  Neuter:  aequor,  sea  ;  cox,  heart]  marmor,  marble. 

3.  Nouns  in  -os. 

a.  Feminine:  dos,  dowry. 

b.  Neuter:  os  (oris mouth. 

4.  Nouns  in  -er. 

a.  Feminine:  linter ,  skiff. 


Third  Declension. 


2  7 


b.  Neuter:  cadaver,  corpse;  iter,  way ;  tuber,  tumor;  uber, 
udder.  Also  botanical  names  in  -er  ;  as,  acer,  maple. 

5.  Nouns  in  -es. 

a.  Feminine:  seges,  crop. 

45.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Feminines. 

1.  Nouns  in -as. 

a.  Masculine :  vas,  bondsman. 

b.  Neuter:  vas,  vessel. 

2.  Nouns  in  -es. 

a.  Masculine:  aries,  ram ;  paries,^//;  pes,  foot. 

3.  Nouns  in  -is. 

a.  Masculine:  all  nouns  in  -nis  and  -guis  ;  as  amnis,  river; 
Ignis,  fire;  panis,  bread;  sanguis,  blood;  unguis,  nail. 


Also  — 


pir  ^is,  fish. 
postis,  post. 
pulvis,  dust. 
orbis,  circle. 
sentis,  brier. 


axis,  axle. 
collis,  hill. 


fascis,  bundle. 
lapis,  stone. 
mensis,  month 


4.  Nouns  in  -x. 

a.  Masculine :  apex,  peak ;  codex,  tree-trunk ;  grex,  flock ; 
imbrex,  tile ;  pollex,  thumb ;  vertex,  summit ;  calix,  cup. 

5.  Nouns  in  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant. 

a.  Masculine:  dens,  tooth  ;  fons,  fountain  ;  mons,  mountain; 
pons,  bridge. 

6.  Nouns  in  -d5. 

a.  Masculine:  car  do,  hinge ;  ordo,  order. 

46.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Neuters. 

1.  Nouns  in  -1. 

a.  Masculine  :  sol,  sun  ;  sal,  salt. 

2.  Nouns  in  -n. 

a.  Masculine  :  pecten,  comb. 

3.  Nouns  in  -ur. 

a.  Masculine  :  vultur,  vulture. 

4.  Nouns  in  -hs. 

a.  Masculine  :  lepus,  hare. 


28 


Inflections . 


Greek  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension 


47.  The  following  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  these  : — 

1.  The  ending  -3.  in  the  Accusative  Singular;  as,  aetherS,  aether; 
SalamlnS,  Salamis. 

2.  The  ending  -6s  in  the  Nominative  Plural  ;  as,  PhrygSs, 

Phrygians. 

3.  The  ending  -3s  in  the  Accusative  Plural  ;  as,  Phryg3s, 

Phrygians. 

4.  Proper  names  in  -as  (Genitive  -antis)  have  -a  in  the  Vocative 
Singular;  as,  Atlas  (Atlantis),  Vocative  Atla,  Atlas. 

5.  Neuters  in  -ma  (Genitive  -matis)  have  -Is  instead  of  -ibus  in 
the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  ;  as,  poematls,  poems. 

6.  Orpheus,  and  other  proper  names  ending  in  -eus,  form  the 
Vocative  Singular  in  -eu  (Orpheu,  etc.).  But  in  prose  the  other 
cases  usually  follow  the  second  declension  ;  as,  Orphel,  Orpheo,  etc. 

7.  Proper  names  in  -e»,  like  Pericles,  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
sometimes  in  -is,  sometimes  in  -I  ;  as,  Periclis  or  PericlI. 

8.  Feminine  proper  names  in  -6  have  -us  in  the  Genitive,  but  -6 
in  the  other  oblique  cases  ;  as,  — 


Nom.  Dido 
Gen.  DTdus 
Dat.  Dido 


Acc.  Dido 
Voc.  Did5 
Abl.  Did5 


9.  The  regular  Latin  endings  often  occur  in  Greek  nouns. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION. 
iz-Stems. 

48.  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  end  in  -us  Mascu¬ 
line,  and  -u  Neuter.  They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Fructus,  m .,  fruit. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Cornu,  n.',  horn. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL 


Nom.  fructus  fructus 

Gen.  fructus  fructuum 

Dat.  fructul  fructibus 


cornu  cornua 


cornus  cornuum 
cornu  cornibus 
cornu  cornua 


Acc.  fructum  fructus 
Voc.  fructus  fructus 


cornu  cornua 
cornu  cornibus 


Abl.  fructu  fructibus 


Fourth  Declension.  —  Fifth  Declension. 


29 


Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension. 

49.  1.  Nouns  in  -us,  particularly  in  early  Latin,  often  form  the 
Genitive  Singular  in  -I,  following  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the 
Second  Declension;  as,  senatl,  ornatl.  This  is  usually  the  case  in 
Plautus  and  Terence. 

2.  Nouns  in  -us  sometimes  have  -u  in  the  Dative  Singular,  instead 
of  -ui  ;  as,  fructu  (for  fructul) . 

3.  The  ending  -ubus,  instead  of  -ibus,  occurs  in  the  Dative  and 
Ablative  Plural  of  artus  (Plural),  limbs ;  tribus,  tribe;  and  in  dis¬ 
syllables  in  -cus  ;  as,  artubus,  tribubus,  arcubus,  lacubus.  But 
with  the  exception  of  tribus,  all  these  words  admit  the  forms  in  -ibus 
as  well  as  those  in  -ubus. 

4.  Domus,  house,  is  declined  according  to  the  Fourth  Declension, 
but  has  also  the  following  forms  of  the  Second  ;  — 

domi  (locative),  at  home;  domum,  homewards,  to  one's  home ; 

domo,  from  home;  domos,  homewards,  to  their  (etc.)  homes. 

5.  The  only  Neuters  of  this  declension  in  common  use  are  :  cornu, 
horn ;  genu,  knee;  and  veru,  spit. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Fourth  Declension. 

50.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine  :  acus,  needle; 
domus,  house;  manus,  hand;  porticus,  colonnade;  tribus,  tribe ; 
Idus  (Plural),  Ides;  also  names  of  trees  (§  15.  2). 


FIFTH  DECLENSION. 
e-Stems. 

51.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  end  in  -es,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 


Dies,  m.,  day.  Res,  f.,  thing. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

dies 

dies 

res 

res 

Gen. 

diel 

dierum 

r8I 

rerum 

Dat. 

diSi 

digbus 

rSI 

rebus 

Acc. 

diem 

dies 

rem 

res 

Voc. 

diSs 

dies 

res 

res 

Abl. 

dig 

digbus 

re 

rebus 

30 


Inflections. 


Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension. 

52.  i.  The  ending  of  the  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular  is  -81, 
instead  of  -el,  when  a  consonant  precedes ;  as,  spel,  rel,  fidei. 

v 

2.  A  Genitive  ending  -I  (for  -ei)  is  found  in  plebl  (from  plebes  = 
plebs)  in  the  expressions  tribunus  plebl,  tribime  of  the  people ,  and 
plebi  scltum,  decree  of  the  people ;  sometimes  also  in  other  words. 

3.  A  Genitive  and  Dative  form  in  -e  sometimes  occurs ;  as,  acie. 

4.  With  the  exception  of  dies  and  res,  most  nouns  of  the  Fifth 
Declension  are  not  declined  in  the  Plural.  But  acies,  series,  species, 
spes,  and  a  few  others  are  used  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative 
Plural. 


Gender  in  the  Fifth  Declension. 

53.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are  regularly  Feminine,  except 
dies,  day,  and  merldies,  mid-day.  But  dies  is  sometimes  Feminine 
in  the  Singular,  particularly  when  it  means  an  appointed  day . 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 

54.  Here  belong  — 

1.  Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

2.  Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

3.  Nouns  used  only  in  certain  cases. 

4.  Indeclinable  Nouns. 

Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

55.  Many  nouns,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification, 
are  regularly  used  in  the  Singular  only.  Thus  :  — 

1 .  Proper  names  ;  as,  Cicero,  Cicero ;  Italia,  Italy. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  material;  as,  aes,  copper ;  lac,  milk. 

3.  Abstract  nouns;  as,  ignorantia,  ignorance ;  bonitas,  good¬ 
ness. 

4.  But  the  above  classes  of  words  are  sometimes  used  in  the  Plural. 
Thus :  — 

a)  Proper  names,  —  to  denote  different  members  of  a  family,  or 
specimens  of  a  type ;  as,  Cicerones,  the  Ciceros ;  Catones, 
?nen  ' like  Cato. 


Defective  Nouns. 


31 


b)  Names  of  materials,  —  to  denote  objects  made  of  the  mate¬ 
rial,  or  different  kinds  of  the  substance ;  as,  aera,  bronzes 
(i.e.  bronze  figures)  ;  ligna,  woods. 

c)  Abstract  nouns,  —  to  denote  instances  of  the  quality ;  as, 
ignorantiae,  cases  of  ignorance. 


Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

56.  Here  belong  — 

1 .  Many  geographical  names ;  as,  Thebae,  Thebes ;  Leuctra, 
Leuctra ;  Pompejl,  Pompeii. 

2.  Many  names  of  festivals  ;  as,  Megalesia,  the  Afegalesian  festival. 


3.  Many  special  words,  of  which 
tant :  — 

angustiae,  narrow  pass. 
arma,  weapons. 
deliciae,  delight. 
dlvitiae,  riches. 

Idus,  Ides. 
indutiae,  truce. 

Insidiae,  ambush. 
majores,  ancestors. 

Also  in  classical  prose  regularly  - 

cervices,  neck. 
fides,  lyre. 


the  following  are  the  most  impor- 

manes,  spirits  of  the  dead. 
minae,  threats. 
moenia,  city  walls. 
nuptiae,  marriage. 
poster!,  desce?idants. 
reliquiae,  remainder. 
tenebrae,  darkness. 
verbera,  blows. 


nares,  nose. 
viscera,  viscera. 


Nouns  used  only  in  Certain  Cases. 

57.  1.  Used  in  only  One  Case.  Many  nouns  of  the  Fourth 
Declension  are  found  only  in  the  Ablative  Singular;  as,  jussu,  by  the 
order ;  in  jussu,  without  the  order ;  natu,  by  birth. 

2.  Used  in  Two  Cases. 

a.  Fors  (chance),  Nom.  Sing. ;  forte,  Abl.  Sing. 

b.  Spontis  ( free-will ),  Gen.  Sing. ;  sponte,  Abl.  Sing. 

3.  Used  in  Three  Cases.  Nemo,  no  one  (Nom.),  has  also  the 
Dat.  neminl  and  the  Acc.  neminem.  The  Gen.  and  Abl.  are  supplied 
by  the  corresponding  cases  of  nullus  ;  viz.  nulllus  and  nullo. 


32 


Inflections. 


4.  Impetus  has  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Abl.  Sing.,  and  the  Nom. 
and  Acc.  Plu. ;  viz.  impetus,  impetum,  impetu,  impetus. 

5.  a.  Preci,  precem,  prece,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Gen.  Sing. 
b.  Vicis,  vicem,  vice,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Dat.  Sing, 

6.  Opis,  dapis,  and  frugis,  —  all  lack  the  Nom.  Sing. 

7.  Many  monosyllables  of  the  Third  Declension  lack  the  Gen.  Plu. ; 
as,  cor,  lux,  sol,  aes,  os  (oris),  rus,  sal,  tus. 


Indeclinable  Nouns. 

58.  Here  belong — 

fas,  n.,  right.  nefas,  n.,  impiety. 

Instar,  n.,  likeness.  nihil,  n.,  nothing. 

mane,  n.,  morning.  secus,  n.,  sex. 

1.  With  the  exception  of  mane  (which  may  serve  also  as  Ablative, 
in  the  7norning),  the  nouns  in  this  list  are  simply  Neuters  confined  in 
use  to  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Singular. 

Heteroclites. 

59.  These  are  nouns  whose  forms  are  partly  of  one 
declension,  and  partly  of  another.  Thus:  — 

1.  Several  nouns  have  the  entire  Singular  of  one  declension,  while 
the  Plural  is  of  another ;  as,  — 

vas,  vasis  (vessel)  ;  Plu.,  v5sa,  vasorum,  vasis,  etc. 
jugerum,  jugerl  (acre)  ;  Plu.,  jugera,  jugerum,  jugeribus,  etc. 

2.  Several  nouns,  while  belonging  in  the  main  to  one  declension 
have  certain  special  forms  belonging  to  another.  Thus  :  — 

a)  Many  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ending  in  -ia  take  also 
a  Nom.  and  Acc.  of  the  Fifth ;  as,  materies,  materiem, 
material ,  as  well  as  materia,  materiam. 

b)  Fames,  hunger ,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension,  has  the 
Abl.  fame  of  the  Fifth. 

c)  Requies,  requietis,  rest ,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension, 
takes  an  Acc.  of  the  Fifth,  requiem,  in  addition  to  requi- 
etem. 

d)  Besides  plebs,  plebis,  common  people ,  of  the  Third  Declen¬ 
sion,  we  find  plebes,  plebSI  (also  plebl,  see  §  52.  2),  of  the 
Fifth. 


Heterogeneous  Nouns. 


33 


Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

60.  Heterogeneous  nouns  vary  in  Gender.  Thus:  — 

1.  Several  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  have  two  forms,  —  one 
Masc.  in  -us,  and  one  Neuter  in  -um ;  as,  clipeus,  clipeum,  shield ; 
carrus,  carrum,  cart. 

2.  Other  nouns  have  one  gender  in  the  Singular,  another  in  the 
Plural ;  as,  — 


SINGULAR. 

balneum,  n.,  bath  ; 
epulum,  n.,  feast ; 
frenum,  n.,  bridle ; 
jocus,  m .,jest; 
locus,  m.,  place; 

rastrum,  n.,  rake; 


PLURAL. 

balneae,  f.,  bath-house. 
epulae,  f.,  feast. 

frenl,  m.  (rarely  frena,  n.),  bridle. 
joca,  n.  (also  jocl,  ml),  jests. 
loca,  n.,  places ;  loci,  m.,  passages 
or  topics  in  an  author. 
rastrl,  m. ;  rastra,  n.,  rakes. 


a.  Heterogeneous  nouns  may  at  the  same  time  be  heteroclites,  as  in  case 
of  the  first  two  examples  above. 


Plurals  with  Change  of  Meaning. 

61.  The  following  nouns  have  one  meaning  in  the 
Singular,  and  another  in  the  Plural :  — 


SINGULAR. 

aedes,  temple ; 
auxilium,  help  ; 
career,  prison ; 
castrum,  fort ; 
copia,  abundance ; 
finis,  end; 
fortuna,  fortune ; 
gratia,  favor ; 

impedlmentum,  hindrance ; 
littera,  letter  (of  the  alphabet)  ; 
mos,  habit ,  custom ; 
opera,  help ,  service ; 

(ops)  opis,  help  ; 
pars,  part ; 
s&l,  salt ; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  house. 

auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 

carceres,  stalls  for  racing-chariots. 

castra,  ca?np. 

copiae,  troops ,  resources. 

fines,- borders,  territory. 

fortunae,  possessions ,  wealth. 

gratiae,  thanks. 

impedimenta,  baggage. 

litterae,  epistle;  literature . 

mores,  character. 

operae,  laborers. 

opes,  resources. 

partes,  party  ;  rdle. 

Sciles,  wit . 


34 


Inflections. 


i 

B.  ADJECTIVES. 

62.  Adjectives  denote  quality.  They  are  declined  like 
nouns,  and  fall  into  two  classes, — 

1.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

2.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 

ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND 

DECLENSIONS. 

63.  In  these  the  Masculine  is  declined  like  hortus,  puer, 
or  ager,  the  Feminine  like  porta,  and  the  Neuter  like  bellum. 
Thus,  Masculine  like  hortus  :  — 

Bonus,  good. 


SINGULAR. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

bonl 

bonae 

bonl 

Dat. 

bond 

bonae 

bono 

Acc. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bond 

bona 

bond 

PLURAL. 

Atom. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Acc. 

bonds 

bonas 

bona 

Voc. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

1.  The  Gen.  Sing.  Masc.  and  Neut.  of  Adjectives  in-ius  ends  in  -il 
(not  in -I  as  in  case  of  Nouns;  see  §  25.  1;  2).  So  also  the  Voc. 
Sing,  of  such  Adjectives  ends  in  -ie,  not  in  -I.  Thus  eximius  forms 
Gen.  eximil ;  Voc.  eximie. 

2.  Distributives  (see  §  78.  1.  c)  regularly  form  the  Gen.  Plu.  Masc. 
and  Neut.  in  -um  instead  of  -orura  (compare  §  25.  6)  ;  as,  denum, 
centenum  ;  but  always  singulorum. 


Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions .  35 


64.  Masculine  like  puer:  — 


Nom. 

Masculine. 

tener 

Tener,  tender . 

SINGULAR. 

Feminine. 

tenera 

Neuter. 

tenerum 

Gen . 

tenerl 

tenerae 

tenerl 

Dat. 

tenero 

tenerae 

tenero 

Acc. 

tenerum 

teneram 

tenerum 

Voc. 

tener 

tenera 

tenerum 

Abl. 

tenero 

tenera 

tenero 

Nom. 

tenerl 

PLURAL. 

tenerae 

tenera 

Gen. 

tenerorum 

tenerarum 

tenerorum 

Dat. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

Acc. 

teneros 

teneras 

tenera 

Voc. 

tenerl 

tenerae 

tenera 

Abl. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

65.  Masculine  like 

Masculine. 

Nom.  sacer 

ager : — 

Sacer,  sacred. 

SINGULAR. 

Feminine. 

sacra 

Neuter. 

sacrum 

Gen. 

sacrl 

sacrae 

sacrl 

Dat. 

sacro 

sacrae 

sacro 

Acc. 

sacrum 

sacram 

sacrum 

Voc. 

sacer 

sacra 

sacrum 

Abl. 

sacro 

sacra 

sacro 

Nom. 

sacrl 

PLURAL. 

sacrae 

sacra 

Gen. 

sacrorum 

sacrarum 

sacrorum 

Dat. 

sacrls 

sacrls 

sacrls 

Acc. 

sacros 

sacras 

sacra 

Voc. 

sacrl 

sacrae 

sacra 

Abl. 

sacrls  - 

sacrls 

sacrls 

1.  Most 

adjectives  in 

-er  are  declined  like  sacer. 

The  following, 

however,  are  declined  like  tener:  asper,  rough  ;  lacer,  torn  ;  liber,  free : 


Inflections. 


miser,  wretched ;  prosper,  prosperous  ;  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger  $ 
sometimes  dexter,  right. 

2.  Satur,  full,  is  declined:  satur,  satura,  saturum. 


66. 


Nine  Irregular  Adjectives. 


Here  belong  — 

alius,  another ; 
ullus,  any; 

uter,  which?  (of  two)  ; 
solus,  alone; 

unus,  o 


alter,  the  other ; 
nullus,  none; 
neuter,  neither; 
totus,  whole; 
alone. 


They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — - 


SINGULAR. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom.  alius 

alia 

aliud 

alter 

altera 

alterum 

Gen. 

alterius 

alterius 

alterius 1 

alterius 

alterius 

alterius 

Dat. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

alterl 

alterl 2 

alterl 

Acc. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

alterum 

alteram 

alterum 

Voc. 

Abl. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

altero 

altera 

altero 

Nom. 

uter 

utra 

utrum 

totus 

tota 

totum 

Gen. 

utrlus 

utrlus 

utrlus 

tStlus 

tdtlus 

totlus 

Dat. 

utrl 

utrl 

'  utrl 

totl 

totl 

totl 

Acc. 

utrum 

utram 

utrum 

totum 

totam 

totum 

Voc. 

Abl. 

utro 

utra 

utro 

toto 

tota 

toto 

1.  All  these  words  lack  the  Vocative.  The  Plural  is  regular. 

2.  Neuter  is  declined  like  uter. 


ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

67.  These  fall  into  three  classes,  — 

1.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations  in  the  Nominative 
Singular,  —  one  for  each  gender. 

2.  Adjectives  of  two  terminations. 

3.  Adjectives  of  one  termination. 


1  This  is  almost  always  used  instead  of  alius  in  the  Genitive. 

2  A  Dative  Singular  Feminine  alterae  also  occurs. 


Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 


37 


a.  With  the  exception  of  Comparatives,  and  a  few  other  words 
mentioned  below  in  §  70.  1,  all  Adjectives  of  the  Third 
Declension  follow  the  inflection  of  l-stems ;  i.e.  they  have 
the  Ablative  Singular  in  -1,  the  Genitive  Plural  in  -ium,  the 
Accusative  Plural  in  -Is  (as  well  as  -es)  in  the  Masculine 
and  Feminine,  and  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural 
in  -ia  in  Neuters. 

Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations. 

68.  These  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Acer,  sharp. 
SINGULAR. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

Dat. 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

Acc. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Voc. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Abl. 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Gen. 

acrium 

acrium 

acrium 

Dat. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

Acc. 

acres,  -Is 

acres,  -Is 

acria 

Voc. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Abl. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

1.  Like  acer  are  declined  alacer,  lively ;  campester,  level;  cele- 
ber,  famous ;  equester,  equestrian ;  paluster,  marshy  ;  pedester, 
pedestrian;  puter,  rotten;  saluber,  wholesome;  Silvester,  woody; 
terrester,  terrestrial ;  volucer,  winged;  also  names  of  months  in 

-ber,  as  September. 

2.  Celer,  celeris,  celere,  swift ,  retains  the  e  before  r,  but  lacks 
the  Genitive  Plural. 

3.  In  the  Nominative  Singular  of  Adjectives  of  this  class  the  Femi¬ 
nine  form  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Masculine.  This  is  regularly  true 
of  salubris,  silvestris,  and  terrestris.  In  case  of  the  other  words 
in  the  list,  the  use  of  the  Feminine  for  the  Masculine  is  confined  chiefly 
to  early  and  late  Latin,  and  to  poetry. 


38 


Inflections . 


Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations. 

69.  These  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Fortis,  strong.  Fortior,  stronger. 

SINGULAR. 


M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

No?n. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Gen. 

fortis 

fortis 

fortioris 

fortioris 

Dat. 

fortl 

fortl 

fortiori 

fortiori 

Acc. 

fortem 

forte 

fortiorem 

fortius 

Voc. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Abl. 

fortl 

fortl 

PLURAL. 

fortidre,  -I 

fortiore,  -I 

Atom. 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Gen. 

fortium 

fortium 

fortiorum 

fortiorum 

Dat. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

Acc. 

fortes,  -Is 

fortia 

fortiores,  -Is 

fortiora 

Voc. 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Abl. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

I.  Fortior  is  the  Comparative  of  fortis.  All  Comparatives  are 

regularly 

declined  in  the  same  way.  The  Acc.  Plu.  in  -Is 

Adjectives  of  One  Termination. 

is  rare. 

70- 

Felix,  happy. 

SINGULAR. 

Prudens,  prudent. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom . 

fellx 

fellx 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen. 

fellcis 

fellcis 

prudentis 

prudentis 

Dat. 

fellcl 

fellcl 

prudentl 

prudentl 

Acc. 

fellcem 

fellx 

prudentem 

prudens 

Voc. 

fehx 

fellx 

prudens 

prudens 

Abl. 

fellcl 

fellcl 

PLURAL. 

prudentl 

prudentl 

Atom. 

felices 

fellcia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Gen. 

felicium 

felicium 

prudentium 

prudentium 

Dat. 

fellcibus 

fellcibus 

prudentibus 

prudentibus 

Acc. 

felices,  -Is 

fellcia 

prudentes,  -Is 

prudentia 

Voc. 

felices 

fellcia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Abl. 

fellcibus 

fellcibus 

prudentibus 

prudentibus 

Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 


39 


Vetus, 

old. 

Plus, 

more. 

M.  AND  F. 

SINGULAR. 

Neut. 

M  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

vetus 

vetus 

plus 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

pluris 

Dat. 

Acc. 

veterl 

veterem 

veterl 

vetus 

plus 

Voc. 

Abl. 

vetus 

vetere 

vetus 

vetere 

plure 

Nom. 

veteres 

PLURAL. 

vetera 

plures 

plura 

Gen. 

veterum 

veterum 

plurium 

plurium 

Dat. 

veteribus 

veteribus 

pluribus 

pluribus 

Acc . 

veteres 

vetera 

plures,  -Is 

plura 

Voc. 

Abl. 

veteres 

veteribus 

vetera 

veteribus 

pluribus 

pluribus 

1.  It  will  be  observed  that  vetus  is  declined  as  a  pure  Consonant- 
Stem  ;  i.e.  Ablative  Singular  in  -e,  Genitive  Plural  in  -um,  Nominative 
Plural  Neuter  in  -a,  and  Accusative  Plural  Masculine  and  Feminine  in 
-es  only.  In  the  same  way  are  declined  compos,  controlling ;  dives, 
rich ;  particeps,  sharing ;  pauper,  poor ;  prlnceps,  chief ;  sospes, 
safe;  superstes,  survivmg.  Yet  dives  always  has  Neut.  Plu.  dltia. 

2.  Inops,  needy ,  and  memor,  mindful ,  have  Ablative  Singular 
inopl,  memorl,  but  Genitive  Plural  inopum,  memorum. 

3.  Participles  in  -ans  and  -ens  follow  the  declension  of  l-stems. 
But  they  do  not  have  -I  in  the  Ablative,  except  when  employed  as  adjec¬ 
tives  ;  when  used  as  participles  or  as  substantives,  they  have  -e  ;  as,  — 

a  sapientl  viro,  by  a  wise  man ;  but 
a  sapiente,  by  a  philosopher  • 

Tarquinio  regnante,  under  the  reign  of  Tar  quin. 

4.  Plus,  in  the  Singular,  is  always  a  noun. 

5.  In  the  Ablative  Singular,  adjectives,  when  used  as  substantives, — 

a)  usually  retain  the  adjective  declension ;  as,  — 

aequalis,  conte7nporary ,  Abl.  aequall. 
consularis,  ex-consul,  Abl.  consularl. 

So  names  of  Months;  as,  Aprlll,  April;  DecembrI,  De¬ 
cember. 

b)  But  adjectives  used  as  proper  names  have  -e  in  the  Ablative 
Singular;  as,  Celere,  Celer ;  Jnvenale,  Juvenal. 


40 


Inflections. 


c )  Patrials  in  -as,  -atis  and  -is,  -Itis,  when  designating  places, 
regularly  have  -I ;  as,  in  Arplnatl,  on  the  estate  at  Arpinum  ; 
yet  -e,  when  used  of  persons  ;  as,  ab  Arplnate,  by  an  Arfi- 
natia7i. 

6.  A  very  few  indeclinable  adjectives  occur,  the  chief  of  which  are 
f rugl,  frugal ;  nequam,  worthless. 

7.  In  poetry,  adjectives  and  participles  in  -ns  sometimes  form  the 
Gen.  Plu.  in  -um  instead  of  -ium  ;  as,  venientum,  of  those  coming. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


71.  i.  There  are  three  degrees  of  Comparison,  —  the 
Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

2.  The  Comparative  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  -ior 
(Neut.  -ius),  and  the  Superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,  -um), 
to  the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel ;  as,  — 


altus,  high , 

fortis,  brave, 
felix,  fortunate, 


altior,  higher , 

fortior, 

fellcior, 


altissimus, 

fortissimus. 

fellcissimus, 


( highest , 
l  very  high. 


So  also  Participles,  when  used  as  Adjectives;  as, — 

doctus,  learned,  doctior,  doctissimus. 

egens,  needy,  egentior,  egentissimus. 

3.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  Superlative  by  appending  -rimus  to 
the  Nominative  of  the  Positive.  The  Comparative  is  regular.  Thus  :  — 

asper,  rough,  asperior,  asperrimus. 

pulcher,  beautifid,  pulchrior,  pulcherrimus. 

acer,  sharp,  acrior,  acerrimus. 

celer,  swift,  celerior,  celerrimus. 

a.  Notice  maturus,  maturior,  maturissimus  or  maturrimus. 

4.  Five  Adjectives  in  -ilia  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  -limus  ta 
the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel.  The  Comparative 
is  regular.  Thus  :  — 


facilis,  easy , 
difficilis,  difficult, 
similis,  like, 
dissimilis,  unlike , 
humilis,  low, 


facilior, 

difficilior, 

similior, 

dissimilior, 

humilior, 


facillimus. 

difficillimus. 

simillimus. 

dissimillimus. 

humillimus. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives. 


41 


» 

5.  Adjectives  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  and  -volus  form  the  Comparative 
and  Superlative  as  though  from  forms  in  -dlcens,  -ficens,  -volens. 
Thus :  — 

maledicus,  slanderous ,  maledlcentior,  maledlcentissimus. 

magnificus,  magnificent ,  magnificentior,  magnificentissimus. 

benevolus,  kindly ,  benevolentior,  benevolentissimus. 

a.  Positives  in  -dlcens  and  -volens  occur  in  early  Latin ;  as,, 
maledicens,  benevolens. 

6.  Dives  has  the  Comparative  divitior  or  dltior  ;  Superlative  divi- 
tissimus  or  dltissimus. 


Irregular  Comparison. 

72.  Several  Adjectives  vary  the  Stem  in  Comparison;. 


VIZ.  - 

bonus,  good \ 

melior, 

optimus. 

malus,  bad, 

^"pejor, 

pessimus. 

parvus,  small, 

minor, 

minimus. 

magnus,  large, 

major, 

maximus. 

multus,  much, 

plus, 

plurimus. 

frug!,  thrifty, 

frugalior, 

frugalissimus. 

nequam,  worthless, 

nequior, 

nequissimus. 

Defective  Comparison. 

73.  1.  Positive  lacking  entirely, — 

(Cf.  prae,  in  front  of.)  prior, former,  primus,  first. 

citerior,  on  this  side,  citimus,  near, 

ulterior,  farther,  ultimus,  farthest 

interior,  inner,  intimus,  inmost. 

propior,  nearer,  proximus,  nearest. 

deterior,  inferior,  deterrimus,  worst. 

(Cf.  archaic  potis,  possible.)  potior,  preferable,  potissimus,  chief est. 

2.  Positive  occurring  only  in  special  cases,  — 


(Cf.  citra,  this  side  of.) 
(Cf.  ultra,  beyond.) 

(Cf.  intra,  within.) 

(Cf.  prope,  near.) 

(Cf.  de,  down.) 


postero  die,  anno,  etc., 

the  following  day ,  etc.,  ^posterior,  later ,  -j 

poster!,  descendants , 

exteri,  foreigners , 
nationes  exterae,  for 

eign  nations,  J  [ 


:.,  j; 


I  postremus, 
postumus 


{, latest , 
last. 

)  late-born, 
posthumous 


I  extremus,  )  outermost_ 


exterior ,  outer,  extimns>  \ 


42 


Inflections . 


infer!,  gods  of  the  lower  world , 
Mare  Inferum,  Mediterranean 
Sea , 


■  Inferior,  lower , 


{Infimus,  1 
Imus,  j 


lowest . 


super!,  above , 

Mare  Superum,  Adriatic  Sea, 


l 


superior,  higher , 


j  supremus,  /zwtf. 

1  summus,  highest . 


3.  Comparative  lacking. 

vetus,  old,  - 1 

fidus,  faithful,  - 

novus,  - 2 

sacer,  .svz#  ed,  - 

falsus, false,  - 

Also  in  some  other  words  less  frequently  used. 


veterrimus. 
fldissimus. 
novissimus,3 4  last. 
sacerrimus, 
falsissimus. 


4.  Superlative  lacking. 

alacer,  lively, 
ing^ns,  great , 
salutaris,  wholesome , 
juvenis,  young, 
senex,  old, 


alacrior, 

ingentior, 

saltitarior, 

junior, 

senior. 


4 

.5 


a.  The  Superlative  is  lacking  also  in  many  adjectives  in  -alia, 
-Ilis,  -ilis,  -bilis,  and  in  a  few  others. 


Comparison  by  Magis  and  Maxime. 

74.  Many  adjectives  do  not  admit  terminational  compar¬ 
ison,  but  form  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  by 
prefixing  magis  (more)  and  maxime  (most).  Here  belong — • 

1.  Many  adjectives  ending  in  -alis,  -aris, -idus,  -ilis,  -icus,  imus, 
Inus,  -orus. 

2.  Adjectives  in  -us,  preceded  by  a  vowel;  as,  idoneus,  adapted ; 
arduus,  steep ;  necessarius,  necessary. 

a.  Adjectives  in  -quus,  of  course,  do  not  come  under  this  rule. 

The  first  u  in  such  cases  is  not  a  vowel,  but  a  consonant. 


1  Supplied  by  vetustior,  from  vetustus. 

2  Supplied  by  recentior. 

3  For  newest ,  recentissimus  is  used. 

4  Supplied  by  minimus  natii. 

6  Supplied  by  maximus  natu. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs .  43 

Adjectives  not  admitting  Comparison. 

75.  Here  belong — 

1.  Many  adjectives  which,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  do 
not  admit  of  comparison;  as,  hodiernus,  of  to-day ;  annuus,  annual ; 
mortalis,  mortal. 

2.  Some  special  words  ;  as,  mlrus,  gnarus,  merus ;  and  a  few 
others. 

FORMATION  AND  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

76.  Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  derived  from  adjec¬ 
tives,  and  depend  upon  them  for  their  comparison. 

1.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of  the  First  and 
Second  Declensions  form  the  Positive  by  changing  -I  of 
the  Genitive  Singular  to  -e;  those  derived  from  adjectives 
of  the  Third  Declension,  by  changing  -is  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  to  -iter  ;  as,  — 

carus,  care,  dearly ; 
pulcher,  pulchre,  beautifully ; 
acer,  acriter,  fiercely ; 
levis,  leviter,  lightly. 

a.  But  Adjectives  in  -ns,  and  a  few  others,  add  -ter  (instead 
of  -iter),  to  form  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

sapiens,  sapienter,  wisely ; 
audax,  audacter,  boldly ; 
sobers,  sollerter,  skillfidly . 

2.  The  Comparative  of  all  Adverbs  regularly  consists  of  the  Accu¬ 
sative  Singular  Neuter  of  the  Comparative  of  the  Adjective;  while  the 
Superlative  of  the  Adverb  is  formed  by  changing  the  -I  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  of  the  Superlative  of  the  Adjective  to  -e.  Thus  — 


(carus) 

care,  dearly , 

carius, 

carissime. 

(pulcher) 

pulchre,  beautifully , 

pulchrius, 

pulcherrime. 

(acer) 

acriter,  fiercely. 

acrius, 

acerrime. 

(levis) 

leviter,  lightly , 

levius, 

levissime. 

(sapiens) 

sapienter,  wisely , 

sapientius, 

sapientissime. 

(audax) 

audacter,  boldly , 

audacius, 

audacissime. 

44 


Inflections . 


Adverbs  Peculiar  in  Comparison  and  Formation. 

77.  I. 


bene,  well , 

melius, 

male,  ill , 

pejus, 

magnopere,  greatly , 

magis, 

multum,  much , 

plus, 

non  multum,  ^  ..... 

• 

’  \  little. 
parum,  j 

minus, 

diu,  long , 

diutius, 

nequiter,  worthlessly, 

nequius, 

saepe,  often , 

mature,  betimes, 

prope,  near , 
nuper,  recently y 


secus,  otherwise. 


saepius, 

maturius, 

propius, 


potius,  rather , 

f  previously ,  1 

pnus>  tW,  } 

setius,  less. 


optime. 

pessime. 

maxime. 

plurimum. 

minime. 

diutissime. 

nequissime. 

saepissime. 

maturrime. 

maturissime. 

proxime. 

nuperrime. 

potissimum,  especially . 
prlmum  y  first. 


2.  A  number  of  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions 
form  an  Adverb  in  -6,  instead  of  -e  ;  as,  — 

crebro,  frequently ;  falsb,  falsely ; 

continuo,  immediately ;  subitb,  suddenly  ; 

raro,  rarely ;  and  a  few  others. 

a,  cito,  quickly ,  has  -6. 


3.  A  few  adjectives  employ  the  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  as  the 
Positive  of  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

multum,  much  ;  paulum,  little;  facile,  easily. 

4.  A  few  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions  form  the 
Positive  in  -iter ;  as,  — 

firmus,  firmiter ,  firmly  1  humanus,  humaniter,  humanly ; 

largus,  largiter,  copiously ;  alius,  aliter,  otherwise. 

a.  violentus  has  violenter. 

5.  Various  other  adverbial  suffixes  occur,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  -tus  and  '-tim ;  as,  antlquitus,  anciently ;  paulatim, 

gradually. 


Numerals , 


i 


45 


NUMERALS. 

78.  Numerals  may  be  divided  into  — 

I.  Numeral  Adjectives,  comprising  — 

a.  Cardinals ;  as,  unus,  one ;  duo,  two ;  etc. 

b.  Ordinals  \ ;  as,  primus,  first;  secundus ,  second;  etc. 

c.  Distributives ;  as,  singuli,  one  by  one ;  blnl,  two  by  two  ;  etc. 

II.  Numeral  Adverbs;  as,  semel,  once ;  bis,  twice ;  etc. 


79.  Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Adverbs. 

z. 

unus,  una,  unum 

primus,  first 

singuli,  one  by  one 

semel,  once. 

2. 

duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,  second 

blnl,  two  by  two 

bis 

3- 

tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

ternl  (trinl) 

ter 

4- 

quattuor 

quartus,  fourth 

quaternl 

quater 

5- 

qulnque 

qulntus ,  fifth 

qulnl 

qulnquies 

6. 

sex 

sextus 

senl 

sexies 

7- 

septem 

Septimus 

septenl 

septies 

8. 

octo 

octavus 

octoni 

octies 

9- 

novem 

nonus 

novenl 

novies 

IO. 

decern 

decimus 

deni 

decies 

II. 

undecim 

undecimus 

undeni 

undecies 

12. 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

duodenl 

duodecies 

13- 

tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

ternl  deni 

terdecies 

14. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaternl  deni 

quaterdecies 

15. 

qulndecim 
(sedecim  ) 

qulntus  decimus 

quinl  deni 

qulnquies  decies 

16. 

/sexdecim  J 

sextus  decimus 

senl  deni 

sexies  decies 

17. 

septendecim 

Septimus  decimus 

septenl  deni 

septies  decies 

18. 

duodevlgintl 

duodevlcesimus 

duodevlcenl 

octies  decies 

19. 

undevlginti 

undevlcesimus 

undevlcenl 

novies  decies 

20. 

vlginti 

vlcesimus 

vlcenl 

vlcies 

21. 

{ vlginti  unus 

vlcesimus  primus 

vlcenl  singuli  \ 

vlcies  semel 

<  unus  et  vlginti 

unus  et  vlcesimus 

singuli  et  viceni  J 

1 

22. 

(vlginti  duo 

vlcesimus  secundus 

vlcenl  blnl  j 

•  vlcies  bis 

<  duo  et  vlginti 

alter  et  vlcesimus 

blnl  et  vlcenl  j 

30. 

trlginta 

trlcesimus 

tricenl 

tricies 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragenl 

quadragies 

50- 

qulnquaginta 

qulnquagesimus 

quinquagenl 

qulnquagies 

60. 

sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexageni 

sexagies 

70. 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

septuagenl 

septuagies 

80. 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogenl 

octogies 

90. 

nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonagenl 

nonagies 

IOO. 

centum 

centesimus 

centeni 

centies 

46 


Inflections 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Adverbs. 

IOI. 

j  centum  unus 

1  centum  et  unus 

centesimus  primus 
centesimus  et  primus 

centeni  singuli 
centeni  et  singuli 

|  centies  semel 

200. 

ducenti,  -ae,  -a 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

ducenties 

300. 

trecentl 

trecentesimus 

treceni 

trecenties 

400. 

quadringentl 

quadringentesimus 

quadringeni 

quadringenties 

500. 

qulngenti 

qulngentesimus 

quingeni 

quingenties 

600. 

sescentl 

sescentesimus 

sesceni 

sescenties 

700. 

septingentl 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

septingenties 

800. 

octingentl 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

octingenties 

900. 

nongenti 

ndngentesimus 

nongeni 

nongenties 

1,000. 

mllle 

mlllesimus 

singula  milia 

milies 

2,000. 

duo  milia 

bis  mlllesimus 

bina  milia 

bis  milies 

100,000. 

centum  milia 

centies  mlllesimus 

centena  milia 

centies  milies 

1,000,000. 

decies  centena 

decies  centies  mllle¬ 

decies  centena 

decies  centies 

milia 

simus 

milia 

milies 

Note. - ensimus  and  -iens  are  often  written  in  the  numerals 

instead  of  -esimus  and  -ies. 


Declension  of  the  Cardinals. 

80.  i.  The  declension  of  unus  has  already  been  given  under  §  66. 


Duo 

is  declined  as 

follows :  — 

Nom. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

Gen . 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum 

Dat. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

Acc. 

duos,  duo 

duas 

duo 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

a.  So  ambo,  both ,  except  that  its  final  0 

Tres  is  declined, — 

is  long. 

Nojn.  tres 

tria 

Gen.  trium 

trium 

Dat.  tribus 

tribus 

Acc.  tres  (tris) 

tria 

Abl.  tribus 

tribus 

4.  The  hundreds  (except  centum)  are  declined  like  the  Plural  of 
bonus. 

5.  Mllle  is  regularly  an  adjective  in  the  Singular,  and  indeclinable. 

In  the  Plural  it  is  a  substantive  (followed  by  the  Genitive  of  the  objects 
enumerated;  §  201.  1),  and  is  declined, — 

Nom.  mTlia  Acc.  milia 

Gen.  milium  Voc.  milia 

Dat.  milibus  Abl.  mllibus 


Numerals . 


47 


Thus  mllle  homines,  a  thousand  men ;  but  duo  mllia  hominum, 

two  thousand  men ,  literally  two  thousands  of  men. 

a.  Occasionally  the  Singular  admits  the  Genitive  construction ; 

as,  mllle  hominum. 

6  Other  Cardinals  are  indeclinable.  Ordinals  and  Distributives 
are  declined  like  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Numerals. 

81.  i.  The  compounds  from  21  to  99  may  be  expressed  either  with 
the  larger  or  the  smaller  numeral  first.  In  the  latter  case,  et  is  used. 
TTliiis  *  -  — 

trlginta  sex  or  sex  et  trlginta,  thirty -six. 

2.  The  numerals  under  90,  ending  in  8  and  9,  are  often  expressed 
by  subtraction  ;  as,  — 

duodevlgintl,  eighteen  (but  also  octodecim)  ; 

undequadraginta,  thirty-nine  (but  also  trlginta  novem  or  novem 
et  trlginta). 

3.  Compounds  over  100  regularly  have  the  largest  number  first; 
the  others  follow  without  et ;  as,  — 

centum  vigintl  septem,  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven. 

anno  octingentesimo  octogesimo  secundo,  in  the  year  882. 

Yet  et  may  be  inserted  where  the  smaller  number  is  either  a  digit  or 
one  of  the  tens  ;  as,  — 

centum  et  septem,  one  himdred  and  seven  ; 
centum  et  quadraginta,  one  hundred  and  forty. 

4.  The  Distributives  are  used  — - 

a)  To  denote  so  many  each ,  so  many  apiece  ;  as, — 

blna  talenta  els  dedit,  he  gave  them  two  talents  each. 

b)  When  those  nouns  that  are  ordinarily  Plural  in  form,  but 
Singular  in  meaning,  are  employed  in  a  Plural  sense;  as, — 
blnae  litterae,  two  epistles. 

But  in  such  cases,  uni  (not  singull)  is  regularly  employed 

for  one ,  and  trim  (not  term)  for  three  ;  as,  — 

unae  litterae,  one  epistle  ;  trinae  litterae,  three  epistles. 

c )  In  multiplication  ;  as,  — 

bis  blna  sunt  quattuor,  twice  two  are  four. 

d)  Often  in  poetry,  instead  of  the  cardinals;  as, - 
blna  hastllia,  two  spears. 


48 


Inflections . 


C.  PRONOUNS. 


82.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  indicates  something  with¬ 
out  naming  it. 


83.  There  are  the  following  classes  of  pronouns :  — 


I.  Personal. 

II.  Reflexive. 

III.  Possessive. 

IV.  Demonstrative. 


V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 


Intensive. 

Relative. 

Interrogative. 

Indefinite. 


I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

84.  These  correspond  to  the  English  I,  you,  he,  she,  it, 
etc.,  and  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


First 

Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

ego,  I 

tu,  thou 

is,  he ;  ea,  she ;  id,  it 

Gen. 

mel 

tui 

(For  declension  see  §  87.) 

Dat. 

mihi1 

tibi 1 

Acc. 

me 

te 

Voc. 

tu 

Abl. 

me 

te 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

nos,  we 

v5s,  you 

Gen.  \ 

nostrum 

J  vestrum 

1 

.  nostrl 

\  vestri 

Dat. 

nobis 

vobis 

Acc. 

nos 

vos 

Voc. 

VOS 

Abl. 

nobis 

vobis 

1.  A  Dative  Singular  ml  occurs  in  poetry. 

2.  Emphatic  forms  in  -met  are  occasionally  found;  as,  egomet, 
/  myself',  tibimet,  to  you  yourself ;  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet  (written 
also  tutimet). 


1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  :n  poetry. 


Pronouns. 


49 


3.  In  early  Latin,  med  and  ted  occur  as  Accusative  and  Ablative 
forms. 

II.  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 

85.  These  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause 
in  which  they  stand  ;  like  myself  \  yourself  \  in  i  I  see  myself,' 


etc.  They  are  declined  as 

follows :  — 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

Supplied  by  oblique 

Supplied  by  oblique 

cases  of  ego. 

cases  of  tu. 

Gen. 

mel,  of  myself 

tui,  of  thyself 

sui 

Dat. 

mihi,  to  myself 

tibi,  to  thyself 

sibi1 

Acc. 

me,  myself 

te,  thyself 

se  or  sese 

Voc. 

Abl. 

me,  with  myself,  etc. 

te,  with  thyself,  etc. 

se  or  sese 

1.  The  Reflexive  of  the  Third  Person  serves  for  all  genders  and  for 
both  numbers.  Thus  sul  may  mean,  of  himself  \  herself  itself  or  of 
themselves ;  and  so  with  the  other  forms. 

2.  All  of  the  Reflexive  Pronouns  have  at  times  a  reciprocal  force; 
as, — 

inter  se  pugnant,  they  fight  with  each  other. 

3.  In  early  Latin,  sed  occurs  as  Accusative  and  Ablative. 

III.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

86.  These  are  strictly  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 
Declensions,  and  are  inflected  as  such.  They  are  — 

First  Person.  Second  Person. 

meus,  -a,  -um,  my ;  tuus,  -a,  -um,  thy ; 

noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  our ;  vester,  vestra,  vestrum,  your ; 

Third  Person. 

suus,  -a,  -um,  his,  her ,  its,  their. 

1.  Suus  is  exclusively  Reflexive;  as, — 

pater  llberos  suos  amat,  the  father  loves  his  children. 

Otherwise,  his,  her,  its  are  regularly  expressed  by  the  Genitive  Singular 
of  is,  viz.  ejus ;  and  their,  by  the  Genitive  Plural,  eorum,  earum. 


1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  in  poetry. 


50 


Inflections. 


2.  The  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  of  meus  is  ml. 

3.  The  enclitic  -pte  may  be  joined  to  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the 
Possessive  Pronouns  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis.  This  is  particularly 
common  in  case  of  suo,  sua ;  as,  suopte,  suapte. 

IV.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS; 

87.  These  point  out  an  object  as  here  or  there,  or  as 
previously  mentioned.  They  are  — 

hie,  this  (where  I  am)  ; 
iste,  that  (where  you  are)  ; 

ille,  that  (something  distinct  from  the  speaker)  ; 
is,  that  (weaker  than  ille)  ; 
idem,  the  same. 

Hie,  iste,  and  ille  are  accordingly  the  Demonstratives  of  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Persons  respectively. 

Hie,  this. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

hie 

haec 

hoc 

hi 

hae 

haec 

Gen. 

hujus  1 

hujus 

hujus 

horum 

harum 

horum 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Acc. 

hunc 

hanc 

hoc 

hos 

has 

haec 

Abl. 

hoc 

hac 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

Iste,  that ,  that  of  yours. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Masculine. 

Feminine.  Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

iste 

ista 

istud  2 

istl 

istae 

ista  2 

Gen. 

istlus 

istlus 

istlus 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat. 

istl 

istl 

istl 

istls 

istls 

istls 

Acc. 

is  turn 

istam 

istud 

istos 

istas 

ista  2 

Abl. 

isto 

ista 

isto 

istls 

istls 

istls 

Ille  (archaic  olle),  that ,  that  one ,  he ,  is  declined  like  iste.8 


1  Forms  of  hie  ending  in  -s  sometimes  append  -ce  for  emphasis  ;  as,  hujusce, 
this  .  . .  here ;  hosce,  hisce.  When  -ne  is  added,  -c  and  -ce  become -ci;  as, 
huncine,  hoscine. 

2  For  istud,  istuc  sometimes  occurs ;  for  ista,  istaec. 

8  Forillud,  illuc  sometimes  occurs. 


The  Intensive  Pronoun.  —  The  Relative  Pronoun.  51 


Is,  he,  this, 

that. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

is 

ea 

id 

el,  il,  (I) 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

ejus 

ejus 

ejus 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

Dat. 

el 

el 

el 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

Acc. 

eum 

earn 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

eo 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

Idem,  the  same. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

f  eldem  1 

Nom. 

Idem 

eadem 

idem 

1  ildem  i 

eaedem 

eadem 

Gen. 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

eorundem  earundem 

eorundem 

Dat. 

eldem 

eldem 

eldem 

elsdem 

elsdem 

elsdem 

Acc. 

eundem 

eandem 

idem 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

Abl. 

eodem 

eadem 

eodem 

elsdem 

elsdem 

elsdem 

The  Nom.  Plu.  Masc.  also  has  idem,  and  the  Dat.  Abl.  Plu.  isdem  or  iisdem. 

V.  THE  INTENSIVE  PRONOUN. 

88.  The  Intensive  Pronoun  in  Latin  is  ipse.  It  corre¬ 
sponds  to  the  English  myself  \  etc.,  in  1 1  myself  ,  he  himself l 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom.  ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsl 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen.  ipslus 

ipslus 

ipslus 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

Dat.  ipsl 

ipsl 

ipsl 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

Acc.  ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

ipsds 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Abl.  ipsd 

ipsa 

ipsd 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

VI.  THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN. 

89.  The  Relative  Pronoun  is  qui,  who.  It  is  declined: — ■ 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

Acc. 

quern 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo  1 

qua  1 

quo  1 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

1  An  ablative  qui  occurs  in  quicum.  2  Sometimes  quls. 


52 


Inflections. 


VII.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

90.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  quis,  who  f  (sub¬ 
stantive)  and  qul,  what  ?  what  kind  of  ?  (adjective). 


I.  Quis 

,  who  ? 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc.  and  Fem. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

quis 

quid 

The  rare  Plural 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

follows  the  de¬ 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

clension  of  the 

Acc. 

quern 

quid 

Relative  Pronoun. 

Abl. 

quo 

quo 

2.  qul, 

what?  what  kind  of?  is 

declined  precisely  like  the 

tive  Pronoun ;  viz.  qul,  quae,  quod,  etc. 

a.  An  old  Ablative  qul  occurs,  in  the  sense  of  how? 

b.  Qul  is  sometimes  used  for  quis  in  Indirect  Questions. 

c.  Quis,  when  limiting  words  denoting  persons,  is  sometimes 
an  adjective.  But  in  such  cases  quis  homo  =  what  man  ? 
whereas  qul  homo  =  what  sort  of  a  man  ? 

d.  Quis  and  qul  may  be  strengthened  by  adding  -nam.  Thus  :  — 

Substantive,  quisnam,  who,  pray  ?  quidnam,  what ,  pray  ? 
Adjective.  qulnam,  quaenam,  quodnam,  of  what  kind ,  pray  ? 


VIII.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 


91.  These  have  the  general  force  of  some  one ,  any  one. 

SUBSTANTIVES. 

ADJECTIVES. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

quis, 

. ,  (  any  one, 

qUld’  1  anything. 

qul, 

quae  or  qua,  quod,  any. 

aliquis, 

a"qU,d’  1  something. 

aliqul, 

aliqua, 

aliquod,  any. 

quisquam, 

l  any  one, 

quidquam,  {  . 

(  anyth  mg. 

quisquam, 

quidquam,  j 

any 

(rare) 

quispiam, 

...  (  any  one, 

quidpiam,  { 

(  anything. 

quispiam, 

quaepiam, 

quodpiam,  any. 

quisque, 

quidque,  each. 

quisque, 

quaeque, 

quodque,  each. 

...  (any  one 

quivis,  quaevis,  quidvis,  l  y  x 

...  .  i  ( anything ) 

quilibet,  quaelibet,  quidlibet,  (  '  . 

quivis, 

quilibet, 

quaevis, 

quaelibet, 

quodvis, 

quodlibet, 

r  any 
|  you 
l  wish. 

( a  certain 

quidam,  quaedam,  quiddam,  ^  person, 

l  or  thing. 

quidam, 

quaedam, 

quoddam, 

;  a  cer - 
\  tain. 

Indefinite  Pronouns.  —  Pronominal  Adjectives .  53 

1.  In  the  Indefinite  Pronouns,  only  the  pronominal  part  is  declined. 
Thus:  Genitive  Singular  alicujus,  cujuslibet,  etc. 

2.  Note  that  aliqul  has  aliqua  in  the  Nominative  Singular  Femi¬ 
nine,  also  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural  Neuter.  QuT  has 
both  qua  and  quae  in  these  same  cases. 

3.  Quldam  forms  Accusative  Singular  quendam,  quandam  ;  Geni¬ 
tive  Plural  quorundam,  quarundam ;  the  m  being  assimilated  to  n 
before  d. 

4.  Aliquis  may  be  used  adjectively,  and  (occasionally)  aliqul  sub¬ 
stantively. 

5.  In  combination  with  ne,  si,  nisi,  num,  either  quis  or  qul  may 
stand  as  a  Substantive.  Thus  :  si  quis  or  si  qul. 

6.  Ecquis,  any  one ,  though  strictly  an  Indefinite,  generally  has 
interrogative  force.  It  has  both  substantive  and  adjective  forms, — 
substantive,  ecquis,  ecquid ;  adjective,  ecqul,  ecquae  and  ecqua, 
ecquod. 

7.  Quisquam  is  not  used  in  the  Plural. 

8.  There  are  two  Indefinite  Relatives,  —  qulcumque  and  quisquis, 
whoever.  Qulcumque  declines  only  the  first  part ;  quisquis  declines 
both,  but  has  only  quisquis,  quidquid,  quoquS  in  common  use. 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

92.  The  following  adjectives,  also,  frequently  have  pro¬ 
nominal  force :  — 

1 .  alius,  another ;  alter,  the  other ; 

uter,  which  of  two?  (interr.)  ;  neuter,  neither ; 

whichever  of  two  (rel.)  ; 

unus,  one;  nullus,  no  one  (in  oblique  cases). 

2.  The  compounds,  — 

uterque,  utraque,  utrumque, each  of  two ; 
utercumque,  utracumque,  utrumcumque,  whoever  of  two  ; 
uterlibet,  utralibet,  utrumlibet,  either  one  you  please  ; 
utervls,  utravls,  utrumvls,  either  one  you  please ; 
alteruter,  alterutra,  alterutrum,  the  one  or  the  other. 

In  these,  uter  alone  is  declined.  The  rest  of  the  word  remains 
unchanged,  except  in  case  of  alteruter,  which  may  decline  both  parts ; 

as, — 

Nom.  alteruter  altera  utra  alterum  utrum 

Gen.  alterius  utrlus  etc. 


54 


Inflections. 


Chapter  II.  —  Conjugation. 

93.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  something ;  as,  est, 
he  is;  amat,  he  loves.  The  Inflection  of  Verbs.is  called 
Conjugation. 

94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and 

Person :  —  • 

1.  Two  Voices,  —  Active  and  Passive. 

2.  Three  Moods,  —  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative. 

3.  Six  Tenses, — 

Present,  Perfect, 

Imperfect,  Pluperfect, 

Future,  Future  Perfect. 

But  the  Subjunctive  lacks  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect;  while  the 
Imperative  employs  only  the  Present  and  Future. 

4.  Two  Numbers,  —  Singular  and  Plural. 

5.  Three  Persons,  —  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

95.  These  make  up  the  so-called  Finite  Verb.  Besides 
this,  we  have  the  following  Noun  and  Adjective  Forms:  — 

1.  Noun  Forms,  —  Infinitive,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

2.  Adjective  Forms,  —  Participles  (including  the  Gerundive). 

96.  The  Personal  Endings  of  the  Verb  are,  — 


Active.  Passive. 


Sing.  1.  -6;  -m ;  -I  (Perf.  Ind.)  ; 

-r. 

2.  -s ;  -stl  (Perf.  Ind.)  ;  -to  or 

-ris,  -re  ;  -re,  -tor  (Impv.). 

wanting  (Impv.)  ; 

3.  -t ;  -to  (Impv.)  ; 

-tur;  -tor  (Impv.). 

Pin.  I.  -mus 

-mur. 

2.  -tis ;  -stis  (Perf.  Ind.)  ;  -te, 

-mini. 

-tote  (Impv.)  ; 

3.  -nt ;  -erunt  (Perf.  Ind.)  ;  -nto 

-ntur ;  -ntor  (Impv.). 

(Impv.)  ; 

VERB-STEMS. 

97.  Conjugation  consists  in  appending  certain  endings 
to  the  Stem.  We  distinguish  three  different  stems  in  a 
fully  inflected  verb,  — 


Verb-Stems.  —  The  Four  Conjugations. 


55 


I.  Present  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — • 

1.  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative, 

2.  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  Active  and  Pas- 

3.  The  Imperative,  sive- 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive, 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle,  the  Gerund,  and  Gerundive. 


II. 


Perfect  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative, 

2.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive, 

3.  Perfect  Infinitive, 


>  Active.  . 


III.  Participial  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Perfect  Participle, 

2.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  _ 

_  r  _  .  .  .  Passive 

3.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive, 

4.  Perfect  Infinitive, 


Apparently  from  the  same  stem,  though  really  of  different  ori¬ 
gin,  are  the  Supine,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  the  Future  Infinitive 
Active  and  Passive. 


THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

98.  There  are  in  Latin  four  regular  Conjugations,  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  each  other  by  the  vowel  of  the  termination 
of  the  Present  Infinitive  Active,  as  follows :  — 


Conjugation. 

Infinitive 

Termination. 

Distinguishing 

Vowei.. 

I. 

-are 

a 

II. 

-ere 

8 

III. 

-Sre 

g 

IV. 

-Ire 

1 

99.  Principal  Parts.  The  Present  Indicative,  Present 
Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  the  Perfect  Participle1 
constitute  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Latin  verb,  —  so  called 
because  they  contain  the  different  stems,  from  which  the 
full  conjugation  of  the  verb  may  be  derived. 


1  Where  the  Perfect  Participle  is  not  in  use,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  if  it 
occurs,  is  given  as  one  of  the  Principal  Parts. 


56 


Inflections . 


CONJUGATION  OF  SUM. 

100.  The  irregular  verb  sum  is  so  important  for  the 
conjugation  of  all  other  verbs  that  its  inflection  is  given 
at  the  outset. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Fut.  Partic.1 

sum  esse  ful  futurus 


SINGULAR, 

sum,  lam, 
es,  thou  art , 
est,  he  is  ; 


eram,  I  was, 

eras,  thou  wast , 

erat,  he  was  ; 


ero,  /  shall  be, 

eris,  thou  wilt  be, 

erit,  he  will  be  ; 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

plural. 

sumus,  we  are, 
estis,  you  are, 
sunt,  they  are. 

Imperfect. 

eramus,  we  were, 
eratis,  you  were, 
erant,  they  were. 

Future. 

erimus,  we  shall  be, 
eritis,  you  will  be, 
erunt,  they  will  be. 


Perfect. 

ful,  /  have  been ,  I  was,  fuimus,  we  have  been,  we  were, 

fuisti,  thou  hast  been,  thou  wast ,  fuistis ,you  have  been,  you  were, 

fuit,  he  has  been,  he  was ;  fuerunt,  ) 

.  _  they  have  been,  they  were. 


fuerarn,  /  had  been, 
fueras,  thou  hadst  been, 
fuerat,  he  had  been  ; 


fuere,  ) 

Pluperfect. 

fueramus,  we  had  been, 
fueratis,  you  had  been, 
fuerant,  they  had  been. 


Future  Perfect. 

fuero,  I  shall  have  been,  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been, 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been,  fueritis,  you  will  have  been, 

fuerit,  he  will  have  beeti ;  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


1  The  Perfect  Participle  is  wanting  in  sum. 


Conjugation  of  Sum. 


5  7 


SUBJUNCTIVE.1 

Present. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL, 

sim,  may  I  be,  slmus,  let  us  be , 

sis,  mayst  thou  be,  sltis,  be  ye,  may  you  be, 

sit,  let  hmi  be,  may  he  be  ;  sint,  let  them  be. 


essem,2  I  should  be, 
esses,2  thou  wouldst  be, 
esset,2  he  woidd  be ; 


Imperfect. 

essemus,  we  should  be, 
essetis,  you  would  be, 
essent,2 *  they  would  be. 


Perfect. 

fuerim,  I  may  have  been,  fuerlmus,  we  7nay  have  been , 

fuerls,  thou  mayst  have  been,  fuerltis ,you  may  have  been, 

fuerit,  he  may  have  been',  fuerint,  they  may  have  been. 


Pluperfect. 


fuissem,  /  should  have  been, 
fuisses,  thou  wouldst  have  been, 
fuisset,  he  would  have  bee?i ; 


fuissemus,  we  should  have  been , 
fuissetis,  you  would  have  been, 
fuissent,  they  would  have  been. 


IMPERATIVE, 


Pres,  es,  be  thou, 

Fut.  esto,  thou  shalt  be, 
esto,  he  shall  be  ; 


este,  be  ye. 
estote,  ye  shall  be, 
sunto,  they  shall  be. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  esse,  to  be. 

Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been. 

Fut.  futurus  ess to  be  aboiit  to  be.  Fut.  futurus,4  aboid  to  be. 


1  The  meanings  of  the  different  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  so  many  and  so 
varied,  particularly  in  subordinate  clauses,  that  no  attempt  can  be  made  to  give 
them  here.  For  fuller  information  the  pupil  is  referred  to  the  Syntax. 

2  For  essem,  esses,  esset,  essent,  the  forms  forem,  fores,  foret,  forent 
are  sometimes  used. 

8  For  futurus  esse  the  form  fore  is  often  used. 

4  Declined  like  bonus,  -a,  -um. 


j 


58 


Inflections. 


101. 


FIRST  (OR  A—)  CONJUGATION. 
Active  Voice.  —  Amo,  I  love. 


Pres.  Ind. 
am  6 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

am  are  amavi  amatus 


SINGULAR. 

amo,  /  love, 

amas,  you  love, 

amat,  he  loves ; 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

plural. 

amamus,  we  love, 
amatis,  you  love , 
amant,  they  love. 


amabam,  I  was  loving, 
amabas,  you  were  loving, 
amabat,  he  was  loving ; 


Imperfect. 

araabamus,  we  were  loving, 
amabatis,  you  were  loving , 
amabant,  they  were  loving. 


amabo,  I  shall  love , 
amabis,  you  will  love , 
amabit,  he  will  love  ; 


Future. 

amabimus,  we  shall  love, 
amabitis,  you  will  love, 
amabunt,  they  will  love. 


,*  ,  Perfect.  uWvW 

r->  ? 

amavi,  I  have  loved,  I  loved, > t amavimus,  we  have  loved,  we  loved, 
am  a  vis  tl,  you  have  loved,  you  amavistis,  you  have  loved,  you  loved, 

loved,  . 

amavit,  he  has  loved,  he  loved',  amaverunt,  -ere,  they  have  loved,  they 

loved. 


amaveram,  I  had  loved, 
amaveras,  you  had  loved, 
amaverat,  he  had  loved ; 


Pluperfect. 


amaveramus,  we  had  loved, 
amaveratis,  had  loved, 
amaverant,  they  had  loved. 


Future  Perfect.  > 

amavero,  I  shall  have  loved,  amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved, 
amaveris,  you  will  have  loved,  amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved ;  amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


First  Conjugation. 


59 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

amem,  may  I  love , 

ames,  may  you  love , 

amet,  let  him  love ; 


amarem,  I  should  love , 
amares,  you  would  love , 
amaret,  he  woidd  love  ; 


Present. 

plural. 
amemus,  let  us  love , 
ametis,  may  you  love, 
ament,  let  them  love. 

Imperfect. 

amaremus,  we  should  love , 
amaretis,  you  woidd  love , 
amarent,  they  woidd  love. 


Perfect. 

amaverim,  /  may  have  loved,  amaverlmus,  we  may  have  loved \ 
amaveris,  you  may  have  loved,  ‘  amaveritis,  you  may  have  loved , 
amaverit,  he  may  have  loved  ;  amaverint,  they  may  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 

amavissem,  I  should  have  loved,  amavissemus^  should  have  loved, 
amavisses,  you  would  have  loved,  amavissetis,  you  woidd  have  loved, 
amavisset,  he  would  have  loved',  amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres,  ama,  love  thou ; 

Fut.  amato,  thou  shalt  love, 
amato,  he  shall  love ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  amare,  to  love. 

Perf.  amavisse,  to  have  loved. 
Fut.  ama  turns  esse,  to  be  about 
to  love. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  amandl,  of  loving, 

Dat.  amando,  for  loving, 

Acc.  amandum,  loving, 

Abl.  amando,  by  loving. 


amate,  love  ye. 
amatote,  ye  shall  love, 
amanto,  they  shall  love. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  amans,1  loving. 

(Gen.  amantis.) 

Fut.  amaturus,  about  to  love. 

SUPINE. 


Acc.  amatum,  to  love, 

Abl.  amatu,  to  love ,  be  loved. 


1  For  declension  of  amans,  see  §  70.  3. 


6o 


Inflections. 


FIRST  (OR  A—)  CONJUGATION. 


102. 


Pres.  Ind. 
amor 


Passive  Voice.  —  Amor,  /  am  loved. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

amarl  amatus  sum 


PLURAL. 

amamur 
amaminl 
amantur 

amabamur 
amabaminl 
amabantur 

amabimur 
amabiminl 
amabuntur 

I  have  been  loved  or  I  was  loved. 


amatus  (-a,  -um)  sum1 

amatl  (-ae,  -a)  sumua 

amatus  es 

amatl  estis 

amatus  est 

amatl  sunt 

Pluperfect. 

/  had  been  loved. 

amatus  eram1 

amatl  eramus 

amatus  eras 

amatl  eratis 

amatus  erat 

amatl  erant 

Future  Perfect. 

/  shall  have  been  loved. 

amatus  ero 1 

amatl  erimus 

amatus  eris 

amatl  eritis 

amatus  erit 

amatl  erunt 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 
singular.  I  am  loved. 

amor 
amaris 
amatur 

Imperfect. 

I  was  loved. 

amabar 

amabaris,  or  -re 
amabatur 

Future. 

/  shall  be  loved. 

amabor 

amaberis,  or  -re 
amabitur 

Perfect. 


1  Fui,  fuistl,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum,  es,  etc.  So  fueram, 
fueras.  etc.,  for  eram,  etc.;  fuero,  etc.,  for  ero,  etc. 


First  Conjugation. 


61 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

May  I  be  loved,  let  him  be  loved. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL, 

amer  amemur 


amens,  or  -re 


ametur 


amemini 

amentur 


Imperfect. 

I  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved. 


amarer 

amareris,  or  -re 
amaretur 


amaremur 

amaremim 

amarentur 


Perfect. 

I  may  have  been  loved. 


amatus  sim  1 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 


amatl  slmus 
amatl  sltis 
amatl  sint 


Pluperfect. 

I  shoidd  have  been  loved,  he  woidd  have  been  loved. 

amatus  essem 1  amatl  essemus 

amatus  esses  amatl  essetis 

amatus  esset  amatl  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres,  amare,  be  thou  loved ;  amaminl,  be  ye  loved. 

Fut.  amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved, 

amator,  he  shall  be  loved ;  amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 


INFINITIVE. 

t  *» 

Pres,  amarl,  to  be  loved. 

Perf.  amatus  esse,  to  have  bee7i 
loved. 

Fut.  amatum  Irl,  to  be  aboid  to 
be  loved. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.  amatus,  loved,  having 
been  loved. 

Gerundive,  amandus,  to  be  loved, 
deserving  to  be 
loved. 


1  Fuerim,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim ;  so  fuissem,  etc.,  for  essem. 


62 


Inflections , 


SECOND  (OR  E-)  CONJUGATION. 

103.  Active  Voice.  —  Moneo,  I  advise. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

moneo  monere  monul 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

I  advise. 


Imperfect. 

I  was  advising ,  or  I  advised. 

monebam  monebamus 

monebas  monebatis 

monebat  monebant 

Future. 

I  shall  advise. 

monebo 
monebis 
monebit 


Perfect. 

I  have  advised \  or  I  advised. 


monul 

monuimus 

monuistl 

monuistis 

monuit 

monuerunt,  or  -ere 

Pluperfect. 

/  had  advised. 

< 

monueram 

monueramus 

monueras 

monueratis 

monuerat 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  have  advised. 

monuerant 

monuero 

monuerimus 

monueris 

monueritis 

monuerit 

monuerint 

monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 


SINGULAR. 

moneo 

mones 

monet 


Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 
monitus 


PLURAL. 

monemus 

monetis 

monent 


Second  Conjugation . 


63 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 

May  /  advise ,  /<?/  him  advise. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

moneam 

moneamus 

moneas 

moneatis 

moneat 

mone ant 

Imperfect. 

/  should  advise,  he  woidd  advise. 

monerem 

moneremus 

moneres 

moneretis 

moneret 

monerent 

Perfect. 

/  may  have  advised. 

monuerim 

monuerlmus 

monuerls 

monuerltis 

monuerit 

monuerint 

Pluperfect. 

/  should  have  advised,  he  would  have  advised. 

monuissem  monuissemus 

monuisses  monuissetis 

monuisset  monuissent 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres,  mone,  advise  thou ; 

Fut .  moneto,  thou  shalt  advise, 
moneto,  he  shall  advise ; 


monete,  advise  ye. 
monetote,  ye  shall  advise, 
monento,  they  shall  advise. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  monere,  to  advise. 

Perf.  monuisse,  to  have  advised. 
Fut.  moniturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  monens,  advising. 

(Gen.  monentis.) 

Fut.  moniturus,  about  to  advise. 


GERUND. 

Gen.  monendl,  of  advising, 
Dat.  monendo,  for  advising, 
Acc.  monendum,  advising, 
Abl.  monendo,  by  advising. 


SUPINE. 


Acc.  monitum,  to  advise. 

Abl.  monitu,  to  advise,  be  advised. 


64 


Inflections , 


SECOND  (OR  E-)  CONJUGATION. 
104.  Passive  Voice.  —  Moneor,  lam  advised. 


Pres.  Ind. 

moneor 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

moneri  monitus  sum 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense, 
singular.  I  am  advised. 

moneor 
moneris 
monetur 

Imperfect. 

I  was  advised. 

monebar 
monebaris,  or  -re 
monebatur 


PLURAL. 

monemur 

monemini 

monentur 


monebamur 

monebamini 

monebantur 


Future. 

I  shall  be  advised. 

monebor 
moneberis,  or  -re 
monebitur 


monebimur 

monebiminl 

monebuntur 


Perfect. 

/  have  been  advised I  was 

monitus  sum 
monitus  es 
monitus  est 


advised. 

monitl  sumus 
monitl  estis 
monitl  sunt 


Pluperfect. 

/  had  been  advised. 

monitus  eram 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


monitl  eramus 
monitl  eratis 
monitl  erant 


Future  Perfect. 

/  shall  have  been  advised. 

monitus  ero 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


monitl  erimus 
monitl  eritis 
monitl  erunt 


Second  Conjugation. 


65 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

May  I  be  advised ,  let  hint  be  advised. 


SINGULAR. 

monear 

monearis,  or  -re 
moneatur 


PLURAL. 

moneamur 

moneamini 

moneantur 


Imperfect. 

I  shoidd  be  advised ,  he  would  be  advised. 


monerer 

monereris,  or  -re 
moneretur 


moneremur 

monereminl 

monerentur 


Perfect. 

I  may  have  been  advised. 

monitus  sim  monitl  slmus 

monitus  sis  monitl  sltis 

monitus  sit  monitl  sint 

Pluperfect. 

/  should  have  been  advised ,  he  would  have  been  advised. 

monitus  essem  monitl  essemus 

monitus  esses  '  monitl  essetis 

monitus  esset  monitl  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres,  monere,  be  thou  advised ;  moneminl,  be  ye  advised. 

Put.  monetor,  thou  shalt  be  ad¬ 
vised, 

monetor,  he  shall  be  advised.  monentor,  they  shall  be  advised. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  monerl,  to  be  advised. 

Perf.  monitus  esse,  to  have  been 
advised. 

Fut.  monitum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 
be  advised. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.  monitus,  advised , 

having  been  advised. 

Gerundive,  monendus,  to  be  ad¬ 
vised,  deserving  to 
be  advised. 


66 


Inflections , 


THIRD  (OR  CONSONANT-)  CONJUGATION. 


105. 


Pres.  Ind. 

rego 


Active  Voice.  —  Rego,  I  rule. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

regere  rexl  rectus 


SINGULAR. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

I  rule. 

PLURAL. 

rego 

regimus 

regis 

regitis 

regit 

regunt 

Imperfect. 

y 

regebam 

I  was  ruling ,  or  /  ruled. 

regebamus 

regebas 

regebatis 

regebat 

regebant 

-  - — 

Future. 

/  shall  rule. 

regam 

regemus 

reges 

regetis 

reget 

regent 

rexl 

Perfect. 

I  have  ruled,  or  I  ruled. 

reximus 

rexistl 

rexistis 

rexit 

rexerunt  or 

re::eram 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  nded. 

rexeramus 

rexeras 

rexeratis 

rexerat 

• 

rexerant 

rexerS 

Future  Perfect. 

/  shall  have  nded. 

rexerimus 

rexeris 

rexeritis 

rexerit 

• 

rexerint 

Third  Conjugation. 


67 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 

May  /  rule,  let  him  rule. 


SINGULAR. 

plural. 

regam 

regamus 

regas 

regat 

Imperfect. 

regatis 

regant 

I  should  rule,  he  woidd  ride. 

regerem 

regeres 

regeret 

Perfect. 

regeremus 

regeretis 

regerent 

rexerim 

/  may  have  ruled. 

rexerlmus 

rexeris 

rexerltis 

rexerit 

Pluperfect. 

rexerint 

I  should  have  ruled,  he  would  have  ruled. 

rexissem 

rexissemus 

rexisses 

rexissetis 

rexisset 

rexissent 

IMPERATIVE. 


Pres. 

rege,  rule  thou  ; 

regite,  rule  ye. 

Fut. 

regito,  thou  shalt  rule , 

regitote,  ye  shall  rule, 

regito,  he  shall  ride ; 

regunto,  they  shall  rule. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

regere,  to  rule. 

Pres. 

regens,  riding. 

Perf. 

rexisse,  to  have  ruled. 

(Gen.  regentis.) 

Fut. 

recturus  esse,  to  be  about 

Fut. 

recturus,  about  to  rule . 

to  rule. 

Gen. 

GERUND. 

s/ 

regendl,  of  ruling, 

SUPINE. 

Dat. 

regen  do ,  for  ruling , 

Acc. 

regendum,  ruling, 

Acc. 

rectum,  to  rule, 

Abl. 

regendo,  by{ruling. 

Abl. 

rectu,  to  rule,  be  ruled. 

68 


Inflections , 


THIRD  (OR  CONSONANT-)  CONJUGATION. 
106.  Passive  Voice.  —  Regor,  lam  nded. 


Pres.  Tnd. 
regor 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

regl  rectus  sum 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

singular.  I  am  ruled. 

regor 

regeris 

regitur 

Imperfect. 

/  was  nded. 

regebar 

regebaris,  or  -re 
regebatur 

Future. 

/  shall  be  nded. 

regar 

regeris,  or  -re 
regetur 

Perfect. 


plural. 

regimur 

regiminl 

reguntur 


regebamur 

regebaminl 

regebantur 


regemur 

regeminl 

regentur 


rectus 

rectus 

rectus 


I  have  been  ruled ,  or  I  was  nded. 

sum 

es 

est 


recti  sumus 
recti  estis 
recti  sunt 


Pluperfect. 

I  had  been  rided. 

rectus  eram 
rectus  eras 
rectus  erat 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  have  been  nded. 

rectus  ero 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 


recti  eramus 
recti  eratis 
recti  erant 


recti  erimus 
recti  eritis 
re  :tl  erunt 


Third  Conjugation, 


69 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 

May  /  be  ruled, ,  let  him  be  ruled. 


SINGULAR. 

regar 

regaris,  or  -re 
regatur 


PLURAL. 

regamur 

regaminl 

regantur 


Imperfect. 

I  should  be  ruled,  he  would  be  ruled. 

regerer  regeremur 

regereris,  or  -re  regereminl 

regeretur  regerentur 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  been  ruled. 

recti  slmus 
recti  sltis 
recti  sint 

Pluperfect. 

been  nded ,  he  woidd  have  been  ruled. 

recti  essemus 
recti  essetis 
recti  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres,  regere,  be  thou  nded;  regiminl,  be  ye  nded. 

Fut.  regitor,  thou  shalt  be  ruled, 

regitor,  he  shall  be  nded;  reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 


I  should  have 

rectus  essem 
rectus  esses 
rectus  esset 


rectus  sim 
rectus  sis 
rectus  sit 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  regl,  to  be  ruled. 

Perf.  rectus  esse,  to  have  been 
nded. 

Fut.  rectum  Irl,  to  be  aboid  to 
be  ruled. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.  rectus,  nded ,  having 
been  ruled. 

Gerundive,  regendus,  to  be  ruled , 
deserving  to  be 
ruled. 


70 


Inflections , 


FOURTH  (OR  I-)  CONJUGATION.  • 

107.  Active  Voice.  —  Audio,  I  hear. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

audio  audlre  audivl  audltus 


SINGULAR. 

audio 

audis 

audit 


audiebam 

audiebas 

audiebat 


audiam 

audies 

audiet 


audivl 

audlvistl 

audivit 


audiveram 

audlveras 

audiverat 


audlvero 

audlveris 

audiverit 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

/  hear .  plural. 

audimus 

auditis 

audiunt 

Imperfect. 

I  was  hearing,  or  /  heard. 

audiebamus 

audiebatis 

audiebant 


Future. 

1  shall  hear. 

audiemus 

audietis 

audient 

Perfect. 

I  have  heard,  or  /  heard. 

audivimus 

audivistis 

audiverunt,  or  -ere 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  heard. 

audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 

Future  Perfect. 

/  shall  have  heard. 

audlverimua 

audiveritis 

audlveriut 


Fourth  Conjugation 


71 


SINGULAR. 

audiam 

audias 

audiat 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 

May  I  hear,  let  him  hear. 

PLURAL. 


audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant 


audlrem 

audlres 

audlret 


audlverim 

audiverls 

audlverit 


Imperfect. 

I  should  hear ,  he  would  hear. 

audlremus 

audlretis 

audlrent 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  heard. 

audlverlmus 

audiverltis 

audiverint 


Pluperfect. 

I  should  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 

audlvissem  audivissemus 

audivisses  audivissetis 

audivisset  audivissent 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres .  audl,  hear  thoit ; 

Put.  audlto,  thou  shalt  hear, 
audits,  he  shall  hear  ; 


audlte,  hear  ye. 
audltSte,  ye  shall  hear, 
audiunto,  they  shall  hear. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  audlre,  to  hear. 

Perf.  audlvisse,  to  have  heard. 
Put.  audlturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  hear. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  audiendl,  of  hearing, 

Dat.  audiendS,  for  hearing, 

Acc.  audiendum,  hearing, 

Abl.  audiendS,  by  hearing. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  audiens,  hearing. 

(Gen.  audientis.) 

Put.  audlturus,  about  to  hear. 

SUPINE. 


Acc.  audltum,  to  hear, 

Abl.  auditu,  to  hear,  be  heard. 


72 


Inflections , 


FOURTH  (OR  I-)  CONJUGATION. 

108.  Passive  Voice.  —  Audior,  lam  heard. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf  Perf.  Ind. 

audior  audlri  auditus  sum 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

singular.  /  am  heard. 

audior 
audlris 
audltur 

Imperfect. 

I  was  heard. 

audiebar 
audiebaris,  or  -re 
audiebatur 


PLURAL. 

audlmur 

audlmin! 

audiuntur 


audiebamur 

audiebamin! 

audiebantur 


Future. 

/  shall  be  heard. 

audiar 

audieris,  or  -re 
audietur 


audiemur 
au  die  mini 
audientur 


Perfect. 

/  have  been  heard \  or  /  was  heard. 


auditus  sum 
auditus  es 
auditus  est 


audit!  sumus 
auditl  estis 
audit!  sunt 


Pluperfect. 

I  had  been  heard. 

auditus  eram 
auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 


auditl  eramus 
audit!  eratis 
auditl  erant 


Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  have  been  heard. 

auditus  ero 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 


audit!  erimus 
audit!  eritis 
audit!  erunt 


Fourth  Conjugation, 


71 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 

May  I  be  heard ,  let  him  be  heard. 


SINGULAR. 

audiar 

audiaris,  or  -re 
audiatur 


PLURAL. 

audiamur 

audiamin! 

audiantur 


Imperfect. 

/  should  be  heard \  he  would  be  heard. 

audlrer  audlremur 

audireris,  or  -re  audireminl 

audlretur  audlrentur 


Perfect. 

/  may  have  been  heard. 


audltus  sim 
auditus  sis 
audltus  sit 


audit!  slmus 
audit!  sltis 
audltl  sint 


Pluperfect. 


I  should  have  been  heard ,  he  would  have  been  heard. 

audltus  essem  audit!  essemus 

audltus  esses  audit!  essetis 

audltus  esset  audit!  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres,  audlre,  be  thou  heard ;  audlminl,  be  ye  heard. 

Fut .  auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard, 

auditor,  he  shall  be  heard ;  audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  audlrl,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditus  esse,  to  have  been 
heard. 

Fut .  audltum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 
be  heard. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect .  audltus,  heard , 

having  been  heard. 

Gerundive,  audiendus,  to  be 
heard,  deserving 
to  be  heard. 


7  4 


Inflections. 


VERBS  IN  -IO  OF  THE  THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

109.  i.  Verbs  in  -i5  of  the  Third  Conjugation  take  the 
endings  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  wherever  the  latter 
endings  have  two  successive  vowels.  This  occurs  only  in 
the  Present  System. 

2.  Here  belong  — 

a)  capid,  to  take ;  cupid,  to  desire;  facio,  to  make ;  fodio,  to 
dig ;  fugio,  to  flee ;  jacio,  to  throw ;  pario,  to  bear ;  quatio, 
to  shake ;  rapio,  to  seize ;  sapio,  to  taste. 

b )  Compounds  of  lacio  and  specio  (both  ante-classical)  ;  as, 
allicio,  entice ;  conspicio,  behold. 

c )  The  deponents  gradior,  to  go ;  morior,  to  die ;  patior,  to 
suffer. 

110.  Active  Voice.  —  Capio,  I  take. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS.  \ 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

capid,  capere,  cepT,  captus. 


SINGULAR. 

capid,  capis,  capit ; 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


plural. 
capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 


Imperfect. 

capiebam.  -iebas,  -iebat ;  capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 


Future. 


capiam,  -ies,  -iet ; 


cepT,  -istl,  -it ; 


capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 


Perfect. 


cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt  or  -ere. 


Pluperfect. 

ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ;  ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

cepero,  -eris,  -erit ;  ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 


Verbs  in  -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation. 


7  5 


SINGULAR. 

capiam,  -ias,  -iat ; 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  plural. 

capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

caperem,  -eres,  -eret ; 

Imperfect. 

caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ; 

Perfect. 

ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ; 

Pluperfect. 

cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

Pres .  cape; 

Fut.  capitd, 
capito ; 

IMPERATIVE. 

capite. 

capitdte, 

capiunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  capere. 

Perf.  cepisse. 

Fut.  capturus  esse. 

Pres,  capiens. 

Fut.  capturus. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen.  capiendT, 

Dat.  capiendd, 

Acc.  capiendum, 

Abl.  capiendo. 

Acc.  captum, 

Abl.  captu. 

111.  Passive  Voice.  —  Capior,  /  am  taken, 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind. 
capior, 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

capT,  captus  sum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

singular.  Present  Tense.  piural. 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ;  capimur,  capiminl,  capiuntur. 

Imperfect. 

capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;  capiebamur,  -iebamini,  -iebantur, 


capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ; 

Future. 

capiemur,  -ieminl,  -ientur. 

Inflections. 


76 


SINGULAR. 

captus  sum,  es,  est ; 


Perfect. 


plural. 
captl  sumus,  estis,  sunt. 


Pluperfect. 

captus  eram,  eras,  erat ;  captl  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

captus  ero,  eris,  erit ;  captl  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ;  capiamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 

Imperfect. 

caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ;  caperemur,  -ereminl,  -erentur. 

Perfect. 

captus  sim,  sis,  sit ;  captl  slmus,  sltis,  sint. 

Pluperfect. 

captus  essem,  esses,  esset ;  captl  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 


Pres,  capere ; 
Fut.  capitor, 
capitor ; 


IMPERATIVE. 

capiminl. 


capiuntor. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  capl. 

Perf.  captus  esse. 
1  Fut.  captum  iri. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.  captus. 
Gerundive,  capiendus. 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 

112.  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  the  main  Passive  forms 
with  Active  or  Neuter  meaning.  But  — 

a.  They  have  the  following  Active  forms:  Future  Infinitive, 
Present  and  Future  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

b.  They  have  the  following  Passive  meanings :  always  in  the 
Gerundive,  and  sometimes  in  the  Perfect  Passive  Participle; 
as,  — 

sequendus,  to  be  followed ;  adeptus,  attained. 


Deponent  Verbs , 


77 


113.  Paradigms  of  Deponent  Verbs  are  — 

I.  Conj.  mlror,  mlrarl,  miratus  sum,  admire . 

II.  Conj.  vereor,  vererl,  veritus  sum,/^r. 

III.  Conj.  sequor,  sequi,  secutus  sum ,  follow. 

IV.  Conj.  largior,  largirl,  largltus  sum,  give. 

III.  (in-ior)  patior,  patl,  passus  sum,  suffer. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD.  * 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV.  Ill  (in-ior). 

Pres. 

mlror 

vereor 

sequor 

largior 

patior 

mlraris 

vereris 

sequeris 

larglris 

pateris 

mlratur 

veretur 

sequitur 

largltur 

patitur 

mlramur 

veremur 

sequimur 

larglmur 

patimur 

mlraminl 

vereminl 

sequiminl 

larglminl 

patiminl 

mirantur 

verentur 

sequuntur 

largiuntur 

patiuntur 

Impf. 

mlrabar 

verebar 

sequebar 

largiebar 

patiebar 

Put. 

mlrabor 

verebor 

sequar 

largiar 

patiar 

Perf. 

miratus  sum 

veritus  sum 

secutus  sum 

largltus  sum 

passus  sum 

Plup. 

miratus  eram 

veritus  eram 

secutus  eram 

largltus  eram 

passus  eram 

F.P. 

miratus  er5 

veritus  ero 

.  secutus  ero 

largltus  ero 

passus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

mlrer 

verear 

sequar 

largiar 

patiar 

Impf. 

mlrarer 

vererer 

sequerer 

larglrer 

paterer 

Perf. 

miratus  sim 

veritus  sim 

secutus  sim 

largltus  sim 

passus  sim 

Plup. 

miratus  essem 

veritus  essem 

secutus  essem 

largltus  essem 

passus  essem 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

mlrare 

verere 

sequere 

larglre 

patere 

Fut. 

mirator 

veretor 

sequitor 

largltor 

patitor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. 

mlrarl 

vererl 

sequi 

largirl 

patl 

Perf. 

miratus  esse 

veritus  esse 

secutus  esse 

largltus  esse 

passus  esse 

Fut. 

mlraturus  esse 

veriturus  esse 

secuturus  esse 

larglturus  esse 

passurus  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 

mlrans 

verens 

sequens 

largiens 

patiens 

Fut. 

mlraturus 

veriturus 

secuturus 

larglturus 

passurus 

Perf. 

miratus 

veritus 

secutus 

largltus 

passus 

Ger. 

mlrandus 

verendus 

sequendus 

largiendus 

patiendus 

GERUND. 

mlrandl, 

verendi 

sequendl 

largiendl 

patiendl 

mirando,  etc. 

verendo,  etc. 

sequendo,  etc. 

largiendo,  etc. 

patiendo,  etc . 

SUPINE. 

mlratum,  -tu 

veritum,  -tu 

secutum,  -tu 

largltum,  -tu 

passum,  -su 

78 


Inflections. 


SEMI-DEPONENTS. 

114.  i.  Semi-Deponents  are  verbs  which  have  the  Pres¬ 
ent  System  in  the  Active  Voice,  but  the  Perfect  System  in 
the  Passive  without  change  of  meaning.  Here  belong  — 

audeo,  audere,  ausus  sum,  to  dare. 
gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavlsus  sum,  to  rejoice. 
soleo,  solere,  solitus  sum,  to  be  wont. 
fld5,  fldere,  flsus  sum,  to  trust. 


2.  The  following  verbs  have  a  Perfect  Passive  Participle  with 
Active  meaning :  — 


adolesco,  grow  up ; 
cenare,  dine ; 
placere,  please ; 
prandere,  lunch ; 
potare,  drink ; 
jurare,  swear ; 


adultus,  having  growti  lip. 
cenatus,  having  dined. 
placitus,  having  pleased,  agreeable. 
pransus,  having  lunched. 
potus,  having  drunk. 
juratus,  having  sworn. 


a.  Juratus  is  used  in  a  passive  sense  also. 


3.  Revertor  and  devertor  both  regularly  form  their  Perfect  in 
the  Active  Voice  ;  viz.  — 

revertor,  revertl  (Inf.),  revertl  (Perf.),  to  return. 
devertor,  devertl  (Inf.),  deverti  (Perf.),  to  turn  aside. 


PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 

115.  There  are  two  Periphrastic  Conjugations,  —  the 
Active  and  the  Passive.  The  Active  is  formed  by  com¬ 
bining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  the  auxiliary  sum, 
the  Passive  by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  the  same 
auxiliary. 

Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  amaturus  (-a,  -um)  sum,  /  am  about  to  love. 

Imp.  amaturus  eram,  /  was  about  to  love. 

Put.  amaturus  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.  amaturus  ful,  /  have  been  (was)  about  to  love. 

Plup.  amaturus  fueram,  /  had  been  about  to  love. 

put.  P.  amaturus  fuero,  /  shall  have  been  about  to  love. 


Peculiarities  of  Conjugation, 


79 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres,  amaturus  sim,  may  I  be  about  to  love. 

Imp.  amatu.rus  essem,  /  might  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.  amaturus  fuerim,  I  may  have  been  about  to  love. 
Plup.  amaturus  fuissem,  /  might  have  been  about  to  love. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  amaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.  amaturus  fuisse,  to  have  been  about  to  love. 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Fut. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut.  P. 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 


Pres. 

Perf. 


Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 
INDICATIVE. 

amandus  (-a,  -um)  sum,  I  am  to  be  loved ,  must  be  loved. 

amandus  eram,  /  was  to  be  loved. 

amandus  ero,  I  shall  deserve  to  be  loved. 

amandus  ful,  /  was  to  be  loved. 

amandus  fueram,  I  had  deserved  to  be  loved. 

amandus  fuer5,  I  shall  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amandus  sim,  may  I  deserve  to  be  loved. 
amandus  essem,  /  might  deserve  to  be  loved. 
amandus  fuerim,  /  may  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 
amandus  fuissem,  I  might  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE. 

amandus  esse,  to  deserve  to  be  loved. 
amandus  fuisse,  to  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 


116. 


i. 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CONJUGATION. 

Perfects  in  -avl,  -evl,  and  -Ivl,  with  the  forms  derived 


from  them,  often  drop  the  ve  or  vi  before  endings  beginning  with  r  or 
s.  So  also  novl  (from  nosco)  and  the  compounds  of  movl  (from 
moved).  Thus:  — 


amavistl 

amastl 

delevistl 

delesti 

amavisse 

amasse 

delevisse 

delesse 

amaverunt 

amarunt 

deleverunt 

delerunt 

amaverim 

amarim 

deleverim 

delerim 

amaveram 

amaram 

deleveram 

deleram 

amavero 

amard 

delevero 

delero 

novistl 

nostl 

noverim 

norim 

novisse 

nosse 

noveram 

noram 

audivistl 

audlstl 

audivisse 

audisse 

8o 


Inflections. 


2.  In  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  of  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conju¬ 
gations,  the  endings  -undus,  -undl,  often  occur  instead  of  -endus  and 
-end!,  as  faciundus,  faciundl. 

3.  DIco,  duco,  facio,  form  the  Imperatives,  die,  due,  fac.  But 
compounds  of  facio  form  the  Imperative  in  -fice,  as  confice.  Com¬ 
pounds  of  dlco,  duco,  accent  the  ultima  ;  as,  edac,  edfe. 

4.  Archaic  and  Poetic  forms  :  — 

a.  The  ending  -ier  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Passive;  as, 
amarier,  monerier,  dicier,  for  a  marl,  m  oner  I,  dlcl. 

b.  The  ending  -Ibam  for  -iebam  in  Imperfects  of  the  Fourth 
Conjugation,  and  -Ibo  for  -iam  in  Futures;  as,  sclbam, 
sclbo,  for  sciebam,  sciam. 

c.  Instead  of  the  fuller  forms,  in  such  words  as  dlxistl,  scrlp- 
sistis,  surrexisse,  we  sometimes  find  dlxtl,  scrlpstis, 
surrexe,  etc. 

d.  The  endings  -im,  -Is,  etc.  (for  -am,  -as,  etc.)  occur  in  a  few 
Subjunctive  forms  ;  as,  edim  (eat),  duint,  perduint. 

5.  In  the  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive,  the  auxil¬ 
iary  esse  is  often  omitted ;  as,  acturum  for  acturum  esse ;  ejectus 
for  ejectus  esse. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  VERB  STEMS. 

Formation  of  the  Present  Stem. 

117.  Many  verbs  employ  the  Verb  Stem  for  the  Present 
Stem  ; 1  as,  dlcere,  ducere,  amare,  monere,  audlre.  Others 
form  the  Present  Stem  variously,  as  follows  :  — 

1.  By  appending  the  vowels,  a,  e,  I ;  as,  — 

juvare,  Present  Stem  juva-  (Verb  Stem  juv-). 

augere,  “  il  auge-  (  “  “  aug-). 

vinclre,  “  u  vincI-  (  u  “  vine-). 

2.  By  adding  i,  as  capio.  Present  Stem  capi-  (Verb  Stem  cap-). 

3.  By  the  insertion  of  11  (m  before  labial-mutes)  before  the  final  con¬ 
sonant  of  the  Verb  Stem ;  as,  fundo  (Stem  fud-),  rumpo  (Stem  rup-). 

4.  By  appending  -n  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

cern-o  pell-o  (for  pel-no). 


1  Strictly  speaking,  the  Present  Stem  always  ends  in  a  Thematic  Vowel  (6  or 
«)  ;  as,  dlc-e-,  dic-o-;  ama-e-,  ama-o-.  But  the  multitude  of  phonetic  changes 
involved  prevents  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  here.  See  the  Author’s  Latin 
Language . 


Formation  of  the  Verb  Stems . 


8 1 


5.  By  appending  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

flect-o. 

6.  By  appending  sc  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

cresc-o,  sclsc-o. 

7.  By  Reduplication,  that  is,  by  prefixing  the  initial  consonant  of 
the  Verb  Stem  with  i  ;  as,  — 

gi-gn-o  (root  gen-),  si-st-o  (rootsta-). 


Formation  of  the  Perfect  Stem. 

118.  The  Perfect  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem  — 


1.  By  adding  v  (in  case  of  Vowel  Stems)  ;  as, — 

amav-i,  delev-I,  audlv-I. 


2.  By  adding  u  (in  case  of  some  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as, — 

strepu-I,  genu-I,  alu-I. 

3.  By  adding  s  (in  case  of  most  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as,  — 

carp-o,  Perfect  carps-I. 
scrib-o,  “  scrlps-I  (for  scrlb-sl). 

rld-eo,  u  rls-I  (forrld-sl). 

sent-io,  “  sens-I  (for  sent-sl). 

dic-o,  “  dix-i  ( [i.e .  die -si). 

a.  Note  that  before  the  ending  -si  a  Dental  Mute  (t,  d)  is 
lost ;  a  Guttural  Mute  (c,  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  x ;  while 
the  Labial  b  is  changed  to  p. 

4.  Without  addition.  Of  this  formation  there  are  three  types  :  — 

a)  The  Verb  Stem  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  initial  con¬ 
sonant  with  the  following  vowel  or  e  ;  as,  — 
curro,  Perfect  cu-currl. 
posco,  il  po-poscl. 

pello,  “  pe-pull. 


Note  i.  —  Compounds,  with  the  exception  of  do,  std,  sisto,  dised,  posco, 
omit  the  reduplication.  Thus :  com-pull,  but  re-poposcl. 

Note  2.  —  Verbs  beginning  with  sp  or  st  retain  both  consonants  in  the  redu¬ 
plication,  but  drop  s  from  the  stem ;  as,  spondeo,  spo-pondi ;  sto,  stetl. 

b)  The  short  vowel  of  the  Verb  Stem  is  lengthened;  as,  lego, 
leg! ;  ago,  egl.  Note  that  3.  by  this  process  becomes  e. 

c)  The  vowel  of  the  Verb  Stem  is  unchanged;  as,  verto, 
vertl ;  minuo,  minul. 


8  2 


Inflections. 


Formation  of  the  Participial  Stem. 


119.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle,  from  which  the 
Participial  Stem  is  derived  by  dropping  -us,  is  formed :  — 

i.  By  adding -tus  (sometimes  to  the  Present  Stem,  sometimes  to 
the  Verb  Stem)  ;  as,  — 


a. 


ama-re,  Participle  ama-tus. 


dele-re, 

audl-re, 

leg-ere, 

scrib-ere, 

senti-re, 

caed-ere. 


a 

a 

a 

u 

a 

a 


dele-tus. 

audl-tus. 

lec-tus. 

scrlp-tus. 

sen-sus  (for  sent-tus). 
cae-sus  (for  caed-tus). 


Note  that  g,  before  t,  becomes  C  (see  §  8,  5)  ;  b  becomes  p;  while 
dt  or  tt  becomes  ss,  which  is  then  often  simplified  to  s  (§  8,  2). 


2.  After  the  analogy  of  Participles  like  sensus  and  caesus,  where 
-sus  arises  by  phonetic  change,  -sus  for  -tus  is  added  to  other  Verb 
Stems ;  as,  — 

lab-I,  Participle  lap-sus. 
flg-ere,  “  fi-xus. 

a.  The  same  consonant  changes  occur  in  appending  this  ending  -sus 
to  the  stem  as  in  the  case  of  the  Perfect  ending  -si  (see  §  118,  3,  a). 

3.  A  few  Verbs  form  the  Participle  in  -itus  ;  as,  — 

doma-re,  dom-itus. 

mone-re,  mon-itus. 


4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  is  usually  identical  in  its  stem  with 
the  Perfect  Passive  Participle ;  as,  ama-tus,  amaturus ;  moni-tus, 


moniturus.  But  — 

juva-re,  Perf.  Partic.  jutus, 


lava-re, 

a 

a 

lautus, 

par-ere, 

a 

a 

partus, 

ru-ere, 

u 

u 

-rutus, 

seca-re, 

a 

u 

sectus, 

fru-I, 

u 

a 

-fructus, 

mor-i, 

a 

u 

mortuus. 

orl-rl, 

u 

u 

ortus, 

has  Fut.  Act.  Partic.  juvaturus.1 


u 

u 

a 

a 

lavaturus. 

u 

a 

a 

a 

pariturus. 

u 

u 

a 

a 

ruiturus. 

u 

a 

a 

a 

secaturus. 

u 

a 

a 

u 

fruiturus. 

a 

a 

a 

u 

moriturus. 

u 

a 

a 

a 

oriturus. 

1  But  the  compounds  of  juv5  sometimes  have  -juturus  ;  as,  adjuturus. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs . 


83 


LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS,  WITH 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

First  (A-)  Conjugation. 

120.  I.  Perfect  in  -VI. 

amo  amare  amavl  amatus  love 

All  regular  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  follow  this  model, 
poto  potare  potavl  potus  (§  114,  2)  drink 

II.  Perfect  in  -UI. 


crepo 

crepare 

crepul 

crepiturus 

rattle 

cubo 

cubare 

cubul 

cubiturus 

lie  down 

domo 

do  mare 

domul 

domitus 

tame 

fried 

fricare 

fricul 

frictus  and  fricatus 

rub 

mico 

micare 

micul 

glitter 

dimico  dimicare 

dlmicavl 

dimicatum  (est)  1 

fight 

ex-plico 

explicate 

explicavl  (-ul 

)  explicatus  (-itus) 

tmfold 

im-plico 

implicare 

implicavi  (-ui 

)  implicatus  (-itus) 

entwine 

seed 

secare 

secul 

sectus 

cut 

sono 

sonare 

sonul 

sonaturus 

sound 

tono 

tonare 

tonul 

thunder 

veto 

vetare 

vetul 

vetitus 

forbid 

III. 

Perfect  in 

-I  with  Lengthening  of  the  Stem  Vowel. 

juvo 

juvare 

juvl 

jutus 

help 

lavo 

lavare 

lavl 

lautus 

wash 

IV. 

Perfect  Reduplicated. 

sto 

stare 

stetl 

staturus 

v.  : 

Deponents. 

These  are  all  regular,  and  follow  ?niror ,  mirari ,  mlratus  sum . 


Second  (i?-)  Conjugation. 
121.  I.  Perfect  in  -VI. 


deleo  delere 

fled  flere 

com-pleo  2  complere 
aboleo  abolere 
cieo 3  ciere 


delevl 

flevl 

complevl 

abolevl 

clvl 


deletus 

fletus 

completus 

abolitus 

oitus 


destroy 
weep ,  lament 
fill  ufi 
destroy 
set  in  motion 


1  Used  only  impersonally.  2  So  impled ,  expled. 

8  Compounds  follow  the  Fourth  Conjugation:  acrid,  acctre,  etc. 


84 


Inflections . 


II.  Perfect  in  -UI. 
a.  Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ul,  -itus. 


arceo 

arcere 

arcul 

keep  off 

coerced 

coercere 

coercul 

coercitus 

hold  in  check 

exerceo 

exercere 

exercul 

exercitus 

practise 

caleo 

calere 

calul 

caliturus 

be  warm 

cared 

carere 

carul 

cariturus 

be  without 

doled 

dolere 

dolui 

doliturus 

grieve 

habeo 

habere 

habul 

habitus 

have 

debeo 

debere 

debul 

debitus 

owe 

praebeo 

praebere 

praebul 

praebitus 

offer 

jaceo 

jacere 

jacul 

jaciturus 

lie 

mereo 

merere 

merul 

meritus 

earn ,  deserve 

moneo 

monere 

monui 

monitus 

advise 

noceo 

nocere 

nocul 

nocitum  (est) 

injure 

pared 

parere 

parul  • 

pari  turns 

obey 

placed 

placere 

placul 

placiturus 

please 

taceo 

tacere 

tacul 

taciturus 

be  silent 

terreo 

terrere 

term! 

territus 

frighten 

valeo 

valere 

valui 

valiturus 

be  strong 

Note  i. 

—  The  following  lack  the  Participial  Stem: 

— 

egeo 

egere 

egul 

want 

emineo 

eminere 

eminul 

stand  forth 

floreo 

fibre  re 

florul 

bloom 

horreo 

horrere 

horrul 

bristle 

lateo 

latere 

latui 

lurk 

niteo 

nitere 

nitul 

gleam 

oleo 

olere 

olul 

s?nell 

palled 

pallere 

pallui 

be  pale 

pateo 

patere 

patuT 

lie  open 

rubeo 

rubere 

rubui 

be  red 

sileo 

silere 

siluT 

be  silent 

splendeo 

splendere 

splenduT 

gleam 

studeo 

studere 

studui 

study 

stuped 

stupere 

stupul 

be  amazed 

timed 

timere 

timul 

fear 

torpeo 

torpere 

torpul 

be  dull 

vigeo 

vigere 

vigui 

•  

flourish 

vireo 

virere 

virui 

% 

be  green 

and  others. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs.  85 


Note  2.  —  The  following  are  used  only  in  the  Present  System :  — 


aveo 

frlgeo 

avere 

frlgere 

•wish 
be  cold 

immineo 

maered 

polled 

imminere 

maerere 

pollere 

and  others. 

-  • 

overhang 
mourn 
be  strong 

b.  Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ul,  -tus  (-sus). 


censed 

censere 

censul 

census 

estimate 

doceo 

docere 

docul 

doctus 

teach 

misceo 

miscere 

miscul 

mixtus 

mix 

teneo 

tenere 

tenul 

hold 

So  contined  and  sustineo ; 

but  — 

retineo 

retinere 

retinul 

retentus 

retain 

obtineo 

obtinere 

obtinul 

obtentus 

maintain 

torreo 

torrere 

torrul 

tostus 

bake 

III.  Perfect  in  -SI. 

augeo 

augere 

auxl 

auctus 

increase 

torqueo 

torquere 

torsi 

tortus 

twist 

indulged 

indulgere 

indulsl 

• 

indulge 

luceo 

lucere 

luxl 

be  light 

lugeo 

lugere 

lux! 

mourn 

jubeo 

jubere 

jussl 

jussus 

order 

per-mulceo 

permulcere 

permulsl 

permulsus 

soothe 

rldeo 

ride  re 

risl 

risum  (est) 

laugh 

suadeo 

suadere 

suasl 

suasum  (est) 

advise 

abs-tergeo 

abstergere 

abstersl 

abstersus 

wipe  off 

ardeo 

ardere 

arsl 

arsurus 

burn 

haereo 

haerere 

haesl 

haesurus 

stick 

maned 

manere 

mansl 

mansurus 

stay 

algeo 

algere 

alsl 

be  cold 

fulgeo 

fulgere 

fulsl 

— 

gleam 

urged 

ur^ere 

ursl 

press 

IV.  Perfect  in  -I  with  Reduplication. 

mordeo 

mordere 

momordl 

morsus 

bite 

spondeo 

spondere 

spopondl 

sponsus 

promise 

tondeo 

tondere 

totondi 

tonsus 

shear 

pended 

pendere 

pependi 

— 

hang 

86 


Inflections , 


V. 

Perfect  in 

-I  with  Lengthening  of  Stem 

Vowel. 

caveo 

cavere 

cavi 

cauturus 

take  care 

faveo 

favere 

favl 

fauturus 

favor 

foveo 

fovere 

fov! 

fotus 

cherish 

move  5 

movere 

movi 

motus 

move 

paveo 

pavere 

pav! 

fear 

sede5 

sedere 

sed! 

sessurus 

sit 

video 

videre 

vld! 

vlsus 

see 

voveo 

vovere 

vovl 

votus 

vow 

VI.  Perfect  in  -I  without  either  Reduplication  or  Length 

ening  of  Stem  Vowel. 

ferved 

fervere 

(fervl  ferbui)  - 

boil 

prandeo 

prandere 

prandi 

pransus  (§  114,  2) 

lunch 

strldeo 

stridere 

stridl 

creak 

VII.  Deponents. 

liceor 

liceri 

licitus  sum 

bid 

polliceor 

polliceri 

pollicitus  sum 

promise 

mereor 

mererl 

meritus  sum 

earn 

misereor 

misereri 

miseritus  sum 

pity 

vereor 

vererl 

veritus  sum 

fear 

fateor 

fateri 

fassus  sum 

confess 

cdnfiteor 

cdnfiterl 

cdnfessus  sum 

confess 

reor 

rerl 

ratus  sum 

think 

medeor 

mederi 

heal 

tueor 

tueri 

— - 

protect 

Third 

(Consonant)  Conjugation. 

122.  I. 

Verbs  with  Present  Stem  ending  in  a  Consonant, 

I.  Perfect  in  -si. 

a.  Type 

-o,  -£re,  -si, 

-tus. 

• 

carpd 

carp  ere 

carps! 

carptus 

phick 

sculpo 

sculpere 

sculps! 

sculptus 

chisel 

repo 

repere 

reps! 

— 

creep 

serpo 

serpere 

serps! 

crawl 

scribd 

scrlbere 

scrips! 

scriptus 

write 

nubo 

niibere 

niipsi 

nupta  (woman  only) 

marry 

rego 

regere 

rex! 

rectus 

govern 

87. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


I 


tego 

tegere 

text 

tectus 

cover 

af-fligo 

affllgere 

afflixl 

affllctus 

shatter 

died 

dice re 

dlxl 

dictus 

say 

duc5 

ducere 

duxl 

ductus 

lead 

coquo 

coquere 

coxi 

coctus 

cook 

traho 

trahere 

traxl 

tractus 

draw 

veh5 

vehere 

vexl 

vectus 

carry 

cingo 

cingere 

clnxl 

clnctus 

gird 

tingo 

tingere 

tlnxl 

tinctus 

dip 

jungo 

jungere 

junxT 

junctus 

join 

fingo 

fingere 

flnxl 

f  ictus 

mould 

pingo 

pingere 

plnxl 

pictus 

paint 

stringo 

stringere 

strinxl 

strictus 

bind 

-stingiio1 

-stinguere 

-s  tlnxi 

-stinctus 

blot  out 

unguo 

unguere 

unxl 

tinctus 

anoint 

vivo 

vivere 

vlxl 

vlctum  (est) 

live 

gero 

gerere 

gessl 

gestus 

carry 

uro 

urere 

ussi 

ustus 

burn 

temno 

temnere 

con-tempsi 

con-temptus 

despise 

b.  Type 

-o,  -§re,  -si, 

-sus. 

figo 

flgere 

fix! 

flxus 

fasten 

mergo 

mergere 

mersl 

mersus 

sink 

spargo 

spargere 

sparsl 

sparsus 

scatter 

flecto 

flectere 

flex! 

flexus 

betid 

necto 

nectere 

nexul  (nexl) 

nexus 

twine 

mitto 

mittere 

mis! 

missus 

send 

rado 

radere 

rasl 

rasus 

shave 

rodo 

rodere 

rdsl 

rosus 

gnaw 

vado 

vadere 

-vast  2 

-vasum  (est)  2 

march ,  walk 

ludo 

ludere 

lusl 

lusum  (est) 

play 

trudo 

trudere 

trusl 

trusus 

push 

laedo 

laedere 

laesl 

laesus 

injure ,  hurt 

claudo 

claudere 

claus! 

clausus 

close 

plaudo 

plaudere 

plausl 

plausum  (est) 

clap 

explodo 

explodere 

explosl 

explosus 

hoot  off 

cedo 

cedere 

cess! 

cessum  (est) 

•withdraw 

divido 

dividere 

dlvlsl 

dlvlsus 

divide 

premo 

premere 

pressl 

pressus 

press 

1  Fully  conjugated  only  in  the  compounds :  exstingud ,  restinguo,  distinguo. 

2  Only  in  the  compounds :  evadd,  invado,  pervado. 


88 


Inflections. 


2.  Perfect  in  -T  with  Reduplication. 


ab-do 

abdere 

abdidi 

abditus 

conceal 

red-do 

red-dere 

reddidi 

redditus 

retur?i 

So  addo ,  condo ,  dedo,  per  do,  prodo, 

trado,  etc. 

c5n-sisto 

consistere 

constiti 

take  one's  stand 

resists 

resistere 

restitl 

resist 

circumsistS 

circumsistere  circumstetl 

surround 

cadS 

cadere 

cecidi 

casurus 

fall 

caedd 

caedere 

cecldi 

caesus 

kill 

pends 

pendere 

pependl 

pensus 

weigh,  pay 

tendo 

tendere 

tetendl 

tentus 

stretch 

tundS 

tundere 

tutudl 

tusus,  tunsus 

beat 

fallo 

fallere 

fefelll 

(falsus,  as  Adj.)  deceive 

pellS 

pellere 

pepull 

pulsus 

drive  out 

currS 

currere 

cucurri 

cursum  (est) 

run 

pared 

parcere 

pepercl 

parsurus 

spare 

cano 

canere 

cecinl 

sing 

tangS 

tangere 

tetigT 

tactus 

touch 

pungS 

pungere 

pupugT 

punctus 

prick 

Note.  — 

In  the  following  verbs  the  perfects  were 

originally  redupli- 

cated,  but  have  lost  the  reduplicating  syllable :  — 

per-cellS 

percellere 

percull 

perculsus 

strike  down 

finds 

findere 

fidi 

fissus 

split 

scindS 

scindere 

scidl 

scissus 

tear  apart 

tolls 

tollere 

sus-tull 

sublatus 

remove 

3.  Perfect  in  -1  with  Lengthening  of  Stem-Vowel. 

ago 

agere 

egi 

actus 

drive ,  do 

peragS 

peragere 

peregl 

peractus 

finish 

subigS 

subigere 

subegl 

subactus 

subdue 

cSgS 

cSgere 

coegl 

coactus 

force,  gather 

frangS 

frangere 

fregl 

fractus 

break 

perfringS 

perfringere 

perfreg! 

perfractus 

break  down 

legs 

legere 

leg! 

lectus 

gather,  read 

perlegS 

perlegere 

perleg! 

perlectus 

read  through 

colligS 

colligere 

collegi 

collectus 

collect 

deligS 

deligere 

delegi 

delectus 

choose 

dlligS 

dlligere 

dllexl 

dilectus 

love 

intellegS 

intellegere 

intellexT 

intellectus 

understand 

neglegS 

neglegere 

neglexl 

neglectus 

neglect 

89 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Veils. 


emo 

emere 

eml 

emptus 

buy 

coemd 

coemere 

coeml 

coemptus 

buy  up 

redimo 

redimere 

red  eml 

redemptus 

buy  back 

dirimo 

dirimere 

direml 

diremptus 

destroy 

demo 

demere 

demps! 

demptus 

take  away 

sumo 

sumere 

sumps! 

sumptus 

take 

promo 

promere 

prdmpsi 

(promptus,  as  Adj.) 

take  out 

vinco 

vincere 

vie! 

victus 

conquer 

re-linquo 

relinquere 

reliqu! 

relictus 

leave 

rumpd 

rum  per  e 

rup! 

ruptus 

break 

edo 

esse 

ed! 

esus 

eat 

fundo 

fundere 

fudl 

fusus 

pour 

4.  Perfect  in  -I  without  either  Reduplication  or  Lengthening  of 
Stem-Vowel. 


excudo 

excudere 

excud! 

excusus 

hammer 

consldd 

consTdere 

consed! 

j  take  one's 
)  seat 

possldo 

possidere 

possed! 

possessus 

f  take  posses- 
(  sion 

accendo 

accendere 

accend! 

accensus 

kindle 

a-scendo 

ascendere 

ascend! 

ascensum  (est) 

climb 

de-fendo 

defendere 

defend! 

defensus 

defend 

pre-hendo 

prehendere 

prehend! 

prehensus 

seize 

ico 

Icere 

!c! 

Ictus 

strike 

vello 

vellere 

veil! 

vulsus 

pluck 

verto 

vertere 

vert! 

versus 

turn 

pando 

pandere 

pand! 

passus 

spread 

sol  VO 

solvere 

solvi 

solutus 

loose 

vTso 

vlsere 

v!si 

visus 

visit 

volvo 

volvere 

volv! 

volutus 

roll 

verro 

verrere 

verri 

versus 

sweep 

5.  Perfect  in  -ul. 
in-cumbo  incumbere 

incubu! 

incubiturus 

lean  on 

gigno 

gignere 

genu! 

genitus 

bring  forth 

molo 

mol  ere 

molu! 

molitus 

grind 

vomo 

vomere 

vomu! 

vomitus 

vo?nit 

fremo 

fremere 

fremu! 

snort 

gemo 

gemere 

gemu! 

sigh 

meto 

metere 

messui 

messus 

reap 

90 

Inflections. 

tremd 

tremere 

tremuT 

tremble 

strepo 

strepere 

strepui 

rattle 

alS 

alere 

alul 

altus  (alitus) 

nourish 

Colo 

colere 

colul 

cultus 

cultivate 

incold 

incolere 

incolut 

inhabit 

excolo 

excolere 

excolul 

excultus 

perfect 

cdnsulo 

cSnsulere 

cSnsulu! 

cSnsultus 

consult 

cSnserS 

cSnserere 

cSnserui 

cSnsertus 

join 

deserS 

deserere 

deserul 

desertus 

desert 

disserd 

disserere 

disserul 

discourse 

texS 

texere 

texul 

textus 

weave 

6.  Perfect  in  -vl. 

sinS 

sin  ere 

sivl 

situs 

allow 

desinS 

desinere 

desil 

desitus 

cease 

pond 

pSnere 

posul 

positus 

place 

ob-lino 

oblinere 

oblevi 

oblitus 

smear 

serS 

serere 

sevi 

satus 

sow 

cSnsero 

cSnserere 

cSnsevi 

cSnsitus 

plant 

cernS 

cernere 

separate 

discerns 

discernere 

discrevi 

discretus 

distinguish 

decerno 

decernere 

decrevl 

decretus 

decide 

spernS 

spernere 

sprevl 

spretus 

scorn 

sternS 

sternere 

stravl 

stratus 

spread 

pro-sternS  prSsternere 

prSstravI 

prSstratus 

overthrow 

pet5 

petere 

petivi  (petii)  petitus 

seek 

appetS 

appetere 

appetivi 

appetltus 

long  for 

terS 

terere 

trlvl 

trltus 

rub 

quaerS 

quaerere 

quaeslvl 

quaesTtus 

seek 

acqulro 

acqulrere 

acqulslvl 

acqulsltus 

acquire 

arcesso 

arcessere 

arcesslvl 

arcessitus 

summon 

capessS 

capessere 

capessivl 

capessTtus 

seize 

lacessS 

lacessere 

lacessivl 

lacessltus 

Provoke 

7.  Used 

only  in  Present  System. 

ango 

angere 

choke 

lambo 

lambere 

lick 

claudS 

claudere 

be  lame 

furS 

furere 

rave 

vergo 

vergere 

bend 

and  a  few  others. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


91 


II.  Verbs  with  Present  Stem  ending  in  -U. 


induo 

induere 

indui 

indutus 

j but  on 

imbuS 

imbuere 

imbul 

imbutus 

moisten 

luo 

luere 

lui 

wash 

polluo 

polluere 

pollul 

pollutus 

defile 

minuo 

minuere 

minul 

minutus 

lessen 

statuo 

statuere 

statu! 

statutus 

set  up 

constituo 

constituere 

constitui 

constitutus 

determine 

suS 

suere 

SUl 

sutus 

sew 

tribuo 

tribuere 

tribul 

tributus 

allot 

ruS 

ruere 

rul 

ruiturus 

fall 

dlruo 

dlruere 

dirul 

dlrutus 

destroy 

obruo 

obruere 

obrul 

obrutus 

overwhehn 

acuo 

acuere 

acul 

sharpen 

arguS 

arguere 

argul 

accuse 

congruS 

congruere 

congrul 

agree 

metuo 

metuere 

metul 

fear 

ab-nu5 

abnuere 

abnul 

decline 

re-spuo 

respuere 

respul 

reject 

struS 

struere 

struxl 

structus 

build 

fluo 

fluere 

flux! 

(fluxus,  as  Adj  i)flow 

III.  Verbs 

with  Present  Stem  ending  in  -I. 

cupio 

cupere 

cuplvl 

cupltus 

wish 

sapio 

sapere 

sapivl 

taste 

rapio 

rapere 

rapui 

raptus 

snatch 

1 

dlripiO 

dlripere 

dlripul 

dlreptus 

plunder 

conspicio 

cSnspicere 

conspexl 

conspectus 

gaze  at 

aspicio 

aspicere 

aspexl 

aspectus 

behold 

illiciS 

illicere 

illexl 

illectus 

allure 

pellicio 

pellicere 

pellexl 

pellectus 

allure 

elicio 

elicere 

elicul 

elicitus 

elicit 

quatio 

quatere 

quassus 

shake 

concutid 

concutere 

concussl 

concussus 

shake 

pario 

parere 

peperi 

partus 

bring forth 

capio 

capere 

cepl 

captus 

take 

accipio 

accipere 

accepl 

acceptus 

accept 

incipio 

incipere 

incepi 

inceptus 

begin 

facio 

facere 

feci 

factus 

make 

afficid 

afficere 

affecl 

affectus 

affect 

Passive , 

afficior,  afficl, 

affectus  sum. 

92  Inflections. 

So  other  prepositional  compounds,  perficid ,  perficior ;  interficio ,  interficior ; 
etc.  But  — 

assuefacio  assuefacere  assuefecl  assuefactus  accustom 
Passive ,  assuefio,  assuefierl,  assuefactus  sum. 

So  also  patefacid ,  patefid ;  calefacio ,  calefid ;  and  all  non-prepositional  com¬ 
pounds. 


jacid 

jacere 

jecl 

jactus 

hurl 

abicio 

abicere 

abjecl 

abjectus 

throw  away 

fodio 

fodere 

fodl 

fossus 

dig 

fugio 

fugere 

fug! 

fugiturus 

flee 

effugio 

effugere 

effugi 

escape 

IV.  Verbs  in  -SCO. 
i.  Verbs  in  -sco  from  Simple  Roots. 


posco 

poscere 

poposcl 

demand 

disco 

discere 

didicl 

learn 

pasco 

pascere 

pavl 

pastus 

feed 

pascor 

pascl 

pastus  sum 

graze 

cresco 

crescere 

crevl 

cretus 

grow 

consuesco 

consuescere 

consuevi 

consuetus 

accustom  one's  self 

quiesco 

quiescere 

quievl 

quieturus 

be  still 

adolescb 

adolescere 

adolevl 

adultus 

grow  up 

obsolescb 

obsolescere 

obsolevl 

grow  old 

nosed 

noscere 

novl 

1 

\  become  acquainted 
with 

ignosco 

ignoscere 

ignovl 

ignoturus 

pardon 

agndsed 

agnoscere 

agnovl 

agnitus 

recognize 

cogn5sc5 

cognoscere 

cognovi 

cognitus  | 

[  get  acquainted 
[  with 

2.  Verbs  in  -sco  formed  from  other  Verbs. 

These  usually  have  Inchoative  or 

Inceptive  meaning  (see  §  155.  1). 

When  they  have  the  Perfect,  it  is  the 

same  as  that  of  the  Verbs  from 

which  they 

are  derived. 

floresco 

florescere 

fldrul 

begin  to  bloo?n  (fibred) 

sclsco 

sclscere 

sclvi 

enact 

(scio) 

aresco 

arescere 

arui 

become  dry  (areo) 

calesco 

calescere 

calul 

become  hot 

(caleo) 

consenesco 

consenescere 

cdnsenul 

grow  old 

(seneo) 

extimesed 

extimescere 

extimul 

fear  greatly  (timeo) 

ingemisco 

ingemlscere 

ingemul 

sigh 

(gemo) 

adhaeresco 

adhaerescere 

adhaesl 

stick 

(haereo) 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs.  93 


3.  Verbs  in  -sco  derived  from  Adjectives,  usually  with  Inchoative 
meaning. 


obduresco 

obdurescere 

obdurul  grow  hard 

(durus) 

evanesco 

evanescere 

evanul  disappear 

(vanus) 

percrebresco  percrebrescere 

percrebrul  grow  fresh 

(creber) 

maturesco 

maturescere 

maturul  grow  ripe 

(maturus) 

obmutesco 

obmutescere 

obmutul  grow  dumb 

(mutus) 

V.  Deponents. 

fungor 

fungi 

functus  sum 

perform 

queror 

queri 

questus  sum 

complain 

loquor 

loqul 

locutus  sum 

speak 

sequor 

sequl 

secutus  sum 

follow 

fruor 

frul 

fruiturus 

enjoy 

perfruor 

perfrui 

perfructus  sum 

thoroughly  enjoy 

labor 

labl 

lapsus  sum 

glide 

amplector 

amplectl 

amplexus  sum 

embrace 

nltor 

nit! 

nlsus  sum,  nlxus  sum 

strive 

gradior 

grad! 

gressus  sum 

walk 

patior 

patl 

passus  sum 

suffer 

perpetior 

perpetl 

perpessus  sum 

endure 

utor 

uti 

usus  sum 

use 

morior 

mori 

mortuus  sum 

die 

adipiscor 

adiplscl 

adeptus  sum 

acquire 

comminlscor  comminlscl 

commentus  sum 

invent 

reminlscor 

reminlscl 

remember 

nanciscor 

nanclscl 

nanctus  (nactus)  sum 

acquire 

nascor 

nascl 

natus  sum 

be  born 

obliviscor 

oblivlscl 

oblltus  sum 

forget 

paclscor 

paclscl 

pactus  sum 

covenant 

proficlscor 

proficlscl 

profectus  sum 

set  out 

ulclscor 

ulclscl 

ultus  sum 

avenge 

Irascor 

IrascI 

(Iratus,  as  Adj.) 

be  angry 

vescor 

vesci 

eat 

Fourth  Conjugation. 

123.  I. 

Perfect  ends 

IN  -VI. 

audio 

audire 

audlvl  auditus 

hear 

So  all  regular  Verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation, 
sepelid  sepellre  sepelivi  sepultus  btiry 


94 


Inflections . 


II.  Perfect  ends  in  -UI. 


aperio 

aperire 

aperul 

apertus 

open 

operio 

operire 

operul 

opertus 

cover 

salio 

sallre 

salul 

leap 

III.  Perfect  ends 

IN  -SI. 

saepio 

saeplre 

saepsl 

saeptus 

hedge  in 

sancio 

sanclre 

sanxl 

sanctus 

ratify 

vincio 

vinclre 

vinxl 

vinctus 

bind 

amicio 

amiclre 

amictus 

envelop 

fulcio 

fulcire 

fulsl 

fultus 

profi  up 

refercio 

referclre 

refersl 

refertus 

fill 

sarcio 

sarcire 

sarsl 

sartus 

patch 

haurio 

haurire 

hausl 

haustus 

draw 

sentio 

sen  tire 

sensl 

sensus 

feel 

IV.  Perfect  in  -I 

with  Lengthening  of  Stem  Vowel. 

venio 

venire 

venl 

ventum  (est) 

come 

advenio 

advenlre 

advenl 

adventum(est)  arrive 

invenio 

invenire 

inveni 

inventus 

find 

•V.  Perfect  with 

Loss  of  Reduplication. 

reperio 

reperlre 

reppen 

repertus 

find 

comperio 

comperire  com  peri 

compertus 

learn 

VI.  Used  only  in 

the  Present. 

ferio 

fenre 

strike 

esurio 

esurire 

be  hungry 

VII.  Deponents. 

largior 

larglri 

largltus  sum 

bestow 

So  many  others. 

experior 

experiri 

expertus  sum 

try 

opperior 

opperirl 

oppertus  sum 

await 

ordior 

ordlri 

orsus  sum 

begin 

orior 

oriri 

ortus  sum 

arise 

Orior  usually  follows  the  Third  Conjugation  in  its  inflection;  as, 
oreris ,  oritur ,  orimur  ;  orerer  (Imp.  Subj.)  ;  or  ere  (Imper.). 

metior  metlri  mensus  sum  ?neasure 

assentior  assentiri  assensus  sum  assent 


Irregular  Verbs. 


95 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

124.  A  number  of  Verbs  are  called  Irregular.  The  most 
important  are  sum,  do,  edo,  fero,  volo,  nolo,  malo,  eo,  flo. 
The  peculiarity  of  these  Verbs  is  that  they  append  the 
personal  endings  in  many  forms  directly  to  the  stem, 
instead  of  employing  a  connecting  vowel,  as  fer-s  (2d 
Sing,  of  fer-o,  instead  of  fer-is.  They  are  but  the  relics 
of  what  was  once  in  Latin  a  large  class  of  Verbs. 

125.  The  Inflection  of  sum  has  already  been  given.  Its  various 
compounds  are  inflected  in  the  same  way.  They  are  — 

absum  abesse  aful  am  absent 


Pres.  Par  tic.  absens  (absentis),  absent. 


adsum 

adesse 

adful 

am  present 

desum 

deesse 

deful 

am  lacking 

Insum 

inesse 

Inful 

ajn  in 

intersum 

interesse 

interful 

am  among 

praesum 

praeesse 

praeful 

am  in  charge  of 

Pres.  Par  tic.  praesens  (praesentis),  present. 

obsum 

obesse 

obful 

hinder 

prosum 

prodesse 

proful 

am  of  advantage 

subsum 

subesse 

subful 

am  underneath 

supersum 

superesse 

superful 

am  left 

Note.  —  Prosum  is  compounded  of  prod  (earlier  form  of  pro)  and  sum; 
the  d  disappears  before  consonants,  as  prosumus ;  but  prodestis. 


126.  Possum.  In  its  Present  System  possum  is  a  compound  of 
pot-  (for  pote,  able)  and  sum ;  potul  is  from  an  obsolete  potere. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

possum,  posse,  potul,  to  be  able. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  possum,  potes,  potest ; 
Imp.  poteram ; 

Fut.  potero ; 

Perf.  potul ; 

Plnp.  potueram ; 

Fut.  P.  potuero ; 


PLURAL. 

possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

poteramus. 

poterimus. 

potuimus. 

potueramus. 

potuerimus. 


96 


Inflections . 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

possim,  possls,  possit ; 

possimus,  possitis,  possint, 

Imp. 

possem ; 

possemus. 

Perf. 

potuerim ; 

potuerimus. 

Plup. 

potuissem ; 

potuissemus. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

posse.  Pres,  potens  (as  an  adjective ). 

Perf. 

potuisse. 

r. 

Do,  I give. 

PRINCIPAL 

PARTS. 

do, 

d£re, 

dedl,  d&tus. 

Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

do,  das,  dat ; 

damus,  datis,  dant. 

Imp. 

dabam,  etc. ; 

dabamus. 

Fut. 

dabo,  etc. ; 

dabimus. 

Perf. 

dedT ; 

dedimus. 

Plnp. 

dederam ; 

dederamus. 

Fut.  P.  dedero ; 

dederimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

dem ; 

demus. 

Imp. 

darem ; 

daremus. 

Perf. 

dederim ; 

dederimus. 

Pluf. 

dedissem ; 

dedisse  mus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

da ; 

date. 

Fut. 

dato ; 

datote. 

dato ; 

dantb. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

dare. 

dans. 

Perf 

dedisse. 

Fut. 

daturus  esse. 

daturas. 

GERUND. 

dandl,  etc. 


SUPINE. 

datum,  datu. 


Irregular  Verbs.  97 

1.  The  Passive  is  inflected  regularly  with  the  short  vowel.  Thus: 
d&rl,  datur,  dSbatur,  daretur,  etc. 

2.  The  archaic  and  poetic  Present  Subjunctive  forms  duim,  duint, 
interduo,  perduint,  etc.,  are  not  from  the  root  da-,  but  from  du-,  a 
collateral  root  of  similar  meaning. 

128.  Edo,  I  eat. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

edo,  esse,  edl,  esus. 

Active  Voice. 


Pres. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

edo 

edimus 

es 

estis 

est  * 

edunt 

Imp. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

essem 

essemus 

esses 

essetis 

esset 

essent 

Pres. 

IMPERATIVE. 

es 

este 

Put. 

esto 

estote 

esto 

edunto 

* 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. 

esse 

Pres. 

Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

3 d  Sing,  estur 

Imp. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

2>d  Sing,  essetur 

1.  Observe  the  long  vowel  of  the  forms  in  es-,  which  alone  distin¬ 
guishes  them  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  esse,  to  be. 

2.  Note  comedo,  comesse,  corned!,  comesus  or  comestus, 
consume. 

3.  The  Present  Subjunctive  has  edim,  -Is,  -it,  etc.,  less  often  edam, 
-as,  etc. 


98 


Inflections , 


129.  Fero,  I  bear. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

fero,  ferre,  tull,  latus. 


Active  Voice. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

9 

PLURAL. 

Pres . 

fero,  fers,  fert 

• 

ferimus,  fertis,  ferunt.1 

Imp. 

ferebam ; 

ferebamus. 

Fut. 

feram ; 

feremus. 

Perf. 

tull ; 

tulimus. 

Plup. 

tuleram ; 

tuleramus. 

Fut.  P. 

tulerd ; 

* 

tulerimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

feram ; 

feram  us. 

Imp. 

ferrem ; 

ferremus. 

Perf. 

tulerim ; 

tulerimus. 

Plup. 

tulissem ; 

tulissemus. 

— 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

fer; 

ferte. 

Fut. 

fertd ; 

fertote. 

ferto ; 

ferunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

ferre. 

Pres. 

ferens. 

Perf. 

tulisse. 

Fut. 

laturus  esse. 

Fut. 

laturus. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen. 

ferendi. 

Dat. 

ferendo. 

Acc. 

ferendum. 

Acc. 

latum. 

Abl. 

ferendo. 

Abl. 

latu. 

1  It  will  be  observed  that  not  all  the  forms  of  fero  lack  the  connecting  vowel. 
Some  of  them,  as  ferimus,  ferunt,  follow  the  regular  inflection  of  verbs  of  the 
Third  Conjugation. 


Irregular  Verbs . 


99 


Passive  Voice. 


feror, 

ferrT, 

latus 

sum, 

to  be  borne. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres . 

feror,  ferris,  fertur ; 

ferimur,  feriminl,  feruntur. 

Imp . 

ferebar ; 

ferebamur. 

Put. 

ferar ; 

feremur. 

Perf. 

latus  sum ; 

lati  sumus. 

P/up. 

latus  eram; 

lati  eramus. 

Fut.  P. 

latus  ero ; 

lati  erimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

ferar ; 

feramur. 

Imp. 

ferrer ; 

ferremur. 

Perf. 

latus  sim ; 

lati  simus. 

Plup. 

latus  essem ; 

lati  essemus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

ferre ; 

feriminl. 

Fut. 

fertor ; 

fertor ; 

feruntor. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

ferri. 

Perf 

latus  esse. 

Perf. 

latus. 

Fut. 

latum  In. 

Ger. 

ferendus. 

So  also  the  Compounds 

— 

• 

affero 

aflferre 

attuli 

allatus 

bring  toward 

aufero 

auferre 

abstuli 

ablatus 

take  away 

c5nfer5 

conferre 

contuli 

collatus 

C07npare 

differo 

differre 

distuli 

dilatus 

put  off 

effero 

efferre 

extull 

elatus 

carry  out 

infero 

Inferre 

intuli 

illatus 

bring  against 

offero 

offerre 

obtull 

oblatus 

present 

refero 

referre 

rettuli 

relatus 

bring  back 

Note.  —  The  forms  sustull  and  sublatus  belong  to  tollo. 


IOO 


Inflections \ 


130. 


Vol5,  nolo,  m515. 


volo, 

nolo, 

malo, 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


velle,  volul, 

nolle,  nolul, 

malle,  malui, 


to  wish. 

to  be  unwilling. 

to  prefer. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres. 

volo, 

nolo, 

malo, 

vis, 

non  vis, 

mavis, 

vult ; 

non  vult ; 

mavult ; 

volumus, 

nolumus, 

malumus, 

vultis, 

non  vultis, 

mavultis, 

volunt. 

nolunt. 

malunt. 

Imp. 

volebam. 

nolebam. 

malebam. 

Fut. 

volam. 

nolam. 

malam. 

Perf. 

volui. 

nolul. 

malui. 

Plup. 

volueram. 

nolueram. 

malueram. 

Fut.  P. 

voluer5. 

noluero. 

maluero, 

- _ 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

velim,  -is,  -it. 

etc.  nolim. 

malim. 

Imp. 

vellem,  -es,  -et,  etc.  nollem. 

mallem. 

Perf. 

voluerim. 

noluerim. 

maluerim. 

Plup. 

voluissem. 

noluissem. 

maluissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres,  noli,  nolite. 

Fut.  nolito,  nolitote, 
nolito  ;  nolunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

nolle.  malle. 

noluisse.  maluisse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

nolens.  - 


Pres,  velle. 
Perf.  voluisse. 


Pres,  vole  ns. 


Irregular  Verbs , 


IOI 


131.  Flo. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

flo,  fieri,  factus  sum,  to  become ,  be  made . 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

fid,  fis,  fit ; 

fimus,  fitis,  flunt. 

Imp. 

flebam ; 

flebamus. 

F"ut. 

flam ; 

flemus. 

Perf. 

factus  sum ; 

factl  sumus. 

Plup. 

factus  eram ; 

factl  eramus. 

Fut.  P. 

factus  ero ; 

fecti  erimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

flam ; 

fiamus. 

Imp. 

fierem ; 

fieremus. 

Perf. 

factus  sim ; 

factl  simus. 

Pluf. 

factus  essem ; 

factl  essemus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

fi; 

fite. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

fieri. 

Perf. 

factus  esse. 

Perf.  factus. 

Fut. 

factum  Iri. 

Ger.  faciendus. 

Note.  —  A  few  isolated  forms  of  compounds  of  flo  occur ;  as, 
defit,  lacks ;  Infit,  begins. 

132.  Eo. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

eo,  Ire,  Ivl,  itum  (est),  to  go. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  ed,  Is,  it ; 

Imp.  Ibam ; 

Fut.  Ibo ; 

Perf.  Ivl  (ii) ; 

Plup.  Iveram  (ieram) 
Fut.  P.  ivero  (ier5)  ; 


PLURAL. 

Imus,  Itis,  eunt. 
Ibamus. 

Ibimus. 

ivimus  (iimus). 
Iveramus  (ieramus). 
Iverimus  (ierimus). 


102 


Inflections. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Pres. 

earn ; 

eamus. 

Imp. 

Irem ; 

Iremus. 

Perf. 

Tverim 

(ierim)  ; 

Iverimus  (ierlmus). 

Plup. 

Ivissem 

i  (iissem,  Issem) 

;  Ivissemus  (iissemus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

i; 

Ite. 

Put. 

ito ; 

Itote, 

Ito ; 

eunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

Ire. 

Pres. 

iens. 

Perf.  Ivisse  (Tsse). 
Put.  i turns  esse. 


{Gen.  euntis.) 

Put.  iturus.  Gerundive ,  eundum. 


SUPINE. 


ltum,  ltu. 


-  GERUND. 

eundl,  etc. 

I.  Transitive  compounds  of  eo  admit  the  full  Passive  inflection; 
as,  adeor,  adlris,  adltur,  etc. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

Defective  Verbs  lack  certain  forms.  The  following  are 
the  most  important:  — 

133.  Used  mainly  in  the  Perfect  System. 

Coepi,  I  have  begun.  MeminI,  I  remember.  OdI,  I  hate. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Perf. 

coepi. 

meminl. 

odl. 

Plup. 

coeperam. 

memineram. 

oderam. 

Put.  P. 

coepero. 

meminero. 

odero. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perf. 

coeperim. 

meminerim. 

oderim. 

Plup. 

coepissem. 

meminissem. 

odissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  memento ;  Plur.  mementdte. 


Defective  Verbs . 

103 

INFINITIVE. 

Perf. 

coepisse. 

meminisse. 

odisse. 

Put. 

coepturus  esse. 

osurus  esse. 

Perf. 

coeptus,  begun. 

PARTICIPLE. 

osus. 

Put. 

coepturus. 

osurus. 

1.  When  coepl  governs  a  Passive  Infinitive  it  usually  takes  the 
form  coeptus  est ;  as,  amari  coeptus  est,  he  began  to  be  loved. 

2.  Note  that  meminl  and  odi,  though  Perfect  in  form,  are  Present 
in  sense.  Similarly  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect  have  the  force 
of  the  Imperfect  and  Future;  as,  memineram,  /  remembered ;  oderS, 
I  shall  hate. 

134.  Inquam,  I  say  (inserted  between  words  of  a  direct  quotation). 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

inquam, 

' - 

inquis, 

inquit ; 

inquiunt. 

Put. 

inquies, 

inquiet. 

Perf  3d  Sing,  inquit. 


135.  Ai5>  1  say • 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

aj5, 

ais, 

ait ; 

ajunt. 

Imf. 

ajebam, 

ajebamus, 

ajebas, 

ajebatis, 

ajebat ; 

ajebant. 

Perf.  3d  Sing.  ait. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  3d  Sing.  ajat. 

Note.  —  For  a’isne,  do  you  mean  ?  a’in  is  common. 


104  Inflections . 

136.  Farl,  to  speak. 

This  is  inflected  regularly  in  the  perfect  tenses.  In  the  Present 
System  it  has  — 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.  -  - 


fatur. 

Fut.  fab  or, 


fabitur.  - 

Imp.  f  are. 

Inf.  far!. 

Pres.  Partic.  fantis,  fanti,  etc. 

Gerund,  G.,  fandl ;  D.  and  Abl.,  fando. 

Gerundive,  fandus. 

NOTE.  —  Forms  of  far!  are  rare.  More  frequent  are  its  compounds;  as, — 
affatur,  he  addresses  ;  praefamur,  we  say  in  advance. 

137.  Other  Defective  Forms. 

1.  Queo,  quire,  qulvl,  to  be  able,  and  nequeo,  nequlre,  nequivi, 
to  be  unable,  are  inflected  like  eo,  but  occur  chiefly  in  the  Present 
Tense,  and  there  only  in  special  forms. 

2.  Quaeso,  / entreat :  quaesumus,  we  entreat. 

3.  Cedo  (2d  sing.),  cette  (2d  plu.)  ;  give  me,  tell  me. 

4.  Salve,  salvete,  hail.  Also  Infinitive,  salvere. 

5.  Have  (ave),  havete,  hail.  Also  Infinitive,  havere. 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

138.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English,  it 
snows,  it  seems,  etc.  They  have  no  personal  subject,  but 
may  take  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Neuter  Pronoun; 
as,  me  pudet  hoc  fecisse,  lit.  it  shames  me  to  have  done  this  ; 
hoc  decet,  this  is  fitting.  Here  belong  — 

I.  Verbs  denoting  operations  of  the  weather;  as, — 

fulget  fulsit  it  lightens 

tonat  tonuit  it  thunders 


Impersonal  Verbs. 


105 


grandinat 

it  hails 

ningit 

ninxit 

it  snows 

pluit 

pluit 

it  rains 

II.  Special  Verbs. 

•  r 

paenitet 

paenitere 

paenituit 

it  repents 

piget 

pigere 

piguit 

it  grieves 

pudet 

pudere 

puduit 

it  causes  shame 

taedet 

taedere 

taeduit 

it  disgusts 

miseret 

miserere 

miseruit 

it  causes  pity 

libet 

libere 

libuit 

it  pleases 

licet 

licere 

licuit 

it  is  lawful 

oportet 

oportere 

oportuit 

it  is  fitting 

decet 

decere 

decu.it 

it  is  becoming 

dedecet 

dedecere 

dedecuit 

it  is  unbecoming 

refert 

referre 

retulit 

it  concerns 

• 

III.  Verbs  Impersonal  only  in  Special  Senses. 

constat 

constare 

constitit 

it  is  evident 

praestat 

praestare 

praestitit 

it  is  better 

juvat 

juvare 

juvit 

it  delights 

apparet 

apparere 

apparuit 

it  appears 

placet 

placere 

placuit  (placitum  est)  it  pleases 

accedit 

accedere 

accessit 

it  is  added 

accidit 

accidere 

accidit 

it  happens 

contingit 

contingere 

contigit 

it  happens 

evenit 

evenire 

evenit 

it  turns  out 

interest 

interesse 

interfuit 

it  concerns 

IV.  The  Passive  of  Intransitive  Verbs  ;  as, — 

Itur 

lit. 

it  is  gone  i.e. 

some  one  goes 

curritur 

lit. 

it  is  run  i.e. 

some  one  runs 

ventum  est 

lit. 

it  has  been  come  i.e. 

some  one  has  come 

veniendum  est 

lit.  it  must  be  come  i.e. 

somebody  must  come 

pugnari  potest 

lit.  it  can  be  fought  i.e. 

somebody  can  fight 

Part  III. 


PARTICLES. 

- ♦ - 


139.  Particles  are  the  four  Parts  of  Speech  that  do  not 
admit  of  inflection  ;  viz.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunc¬ 
tions,  Interjections. 

ADVERBS. 

140.  Adverbs  denote  manner,  place,  time,  or  degree. 
Most  adverbs  are  in  origin  case-forms  which  have  become 
stereotyped  by  usage.  The  common  adverbial  terminations 
have  already  been  given  above  (§  76).  The  following 
Table  of  Correlatives  is  important :  — 


Relative  and  Interrogative. 

ubi,  where ;  where  ? 
quo,  whither ;  whither  f 

unde,  whence  ;  whence  f 

qua,  where ;  where  t 

cum,  when. 
quando,  when  ? 
quotiens,  as  often  as ; 
how  often  ? 

quam,  as  much  as  ;  how 
much  ? 


Demonstrative. 

hie,  here. 

ibi,  illlc,  istlc,  there. 
hue,  hither. 
eo,  istuc,  illuc, 

thither. 

hinc,  hence. 
inde,  istinc,  illinc, 

thence. 

hac,  by  this  way. 
ea,  istac,  iliac,  by 
that  way. 
nunc,  now. 
turn,  tunc,  then. 
totiens,  so  often . 

tam,  so  much. 

106 


Indefinite. 

alicubi,  usquam,  us- 

piam,  somezvhere. 
aliquo,  to  some  place. 


alicunde,/h?/«  some¬ 
where. 

aliqua,  by  some  way. 

aliquando,  umquam, 

sometime ,  ever. 
aliquotiens,  some 
number  of  times. 

aliquantum, 

somewhat. 


Prepositions . 


107 


PREPOSITIONS. 

141.  Prepositions  show  relations  of  words.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  Prepositions  govern  the  Accusative :  — 


ad,  to. 

adversus,  against . 
adversum,  toward , 
against. 
ante,  before. 
apud,  with,  near. 
circa,  around. 
circiter,  about. 
circum,  around. 
cis,  this  side  of. 
citra,  this  side  of. 


contra,  against. 
erga,  toward. 
extra,  outside. 

Infra,  below. 
inter,  between. 
intra,  within. 
juxta,  near. 
ob,  on  account  of. 
penes,  in  the  hands  of. 
per,  through. 
pone,  behind. 


post,  after. 
praeter,  past. 
prope,  near. 
propter,  on  account  of. 
secundum,  after. 
subter,  beneath. 
super,  over. 
supra,  above. 
trails,  across. 
ultra,  beyond. 
versus,  toward. 


1.  Usque  is  often  prefixed  to  ad,  in  the  sense  of  even  ;  as, — 

usque  ad  urbem,  even  to  the  city. 

2.  Versus  always  follows  its  case  ;  as,  — 

Romam  versus,  toward  Rome. 

It  may  be  combined  with  a  preceding  Preposition  ;  as,  — 
ad  urbem  versus,  toward  the  city. 

3.  Like  prope,  the  Comparatives  propior,  propius,  and  the  Super¬ 
latives  proximus,  proxime,  sometimes  govern  the  Accusative;  as, — 

Ubil  proxime  Rhenum  incolunt,  the  Ubii  dwell  next  to  the  Rhine] 
propius  castra  hostium,  nearer  the  camp  of  the  enetny. 


142.  The  following  Prepositions  govern  the  Ablative:  — 


5,  ab,  abs,  from,  by. 
absque,  without. 
coram,  in  the  presence 
of. 


cum,  with. 
de,  from,  concerning. 
e,  ex,  from,  out  of. 
prae,  before. 


pro,  in  front  of, 
for. 

sine,  without. 
tenus,  up  to. 


1.  A,  ab,  abs.  Before  vowels  or  h,  ab  must  be  used;  before  con¬ 
sonants  we  find  sometimes  a,  sometimes  ab  (the  latter  usually  not 
before  the  labials  b,  p,  f,  v,  m ;  nor  before  c,  g,  q,  or  t)  ;  abs  occurs 
only  before  te,  and  a  is  admissible  even  there. 

2.  E,  ex.  Before  vowels  or  h,  ex  must  be  used ;  before  conso¬ 
nants.  we  find  sometimes  e,  sometimes  ex. 


io8 


Particles 


3.  Tenus  regularly  follows  its  case,  as  pectoribus  terms,  up  to  tht 
breast .  It  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive,  as  labrorum  tenus,  as  far 
as  the  lips. 

4.  Cum  is  appended  to  the  Pronouns  of  the  First  and  Second 
Persons,  and  to  the  Reflexive  Pronoun ;  usually  also  to  the  Relative 
and  Interrogative.  Thus  :  — 

mecum  noblscum  quocum  or  cum  quo 

tecum  voblscum  quacum  or  cum  qua 

secum  quibuscum  or  cum  quibus 

On  quicum,  see  §  89,  Footnote  1. 

143.  Two  Prepositions,  in,  in,  into,  and  sub,  tinder,  gov¬ 
ern  both  the  Accusative  and  the  Ablative.  With  the  Ac¬ 
cusative  they  denote  motion  ;  with  the  Ablative,  rest ;  as,  — 

in  urbem,  into  the  city ;  in  urbe,  in  the  city. 

I.  Subter  and  super  are  also  occasionally  construed  with  the 
Ablative. 

144.  Relation  of  Adverbs  and  Prepositions. 

1.  Prepositions  were  originally  Adverbs,  and  many  of  them  still 
retain  their  adverbial  meaning;  as,  post,  afterwards ;  ante,  previ¬ 
ously',  contra,  on  the  other  hand ,  etc. 

2.  Conversely  several  .words,  usually  adverbs,  are  occasionally 
employed  as  prepositions ;  as,  — 

clam,  prldie,  with  the  Accusative. 

procul,  simul,  palam,  with  the  Ablative. 

3.  Andstrophe.  A  Preposition  sometimes  follows  its  case.  This 
is  called  Andstrophe  ;  as,  — 

el,  quos  inter  erat,  those  among  whom  he  was. 

Anastrophe  occurs  chiefly  with  dissyllabic  prepositions. 

CONJUNCTIONS  AND  INTERJECTIONS. 

145.  1.  Conjunctions  are  used  to  connect  ideas.  For 
Coordinate  Conjunctions,  see  §§  341  ff.  Subordinate  Con¬ 
junctions  are  treated  in  connection  with  Subordinate  Clauses. 

2.  Interjections  express  emotion.  Thus:  — 

1.  Surprise;  as,  en,  ecce,  0. 

2.  Joy  |i  as,  io,  euoe. 

3.  Sorrow  and  Pain  ;  as,  heu,  eheu,  vae,  pr5. 

4.  Calling ;  as,  heus,  eho. 


Part  I V. 


— • — 

WORD-FORMATION. 

— ♦ — 

I.  DERIVATIVES. 

146.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  appending  certain  ter¬ 
minations  called  Suffixes  to  stems  of  verbs,  nouns,  or 
adjectives. 

A.  NOUNS. 

1.  Nouns  derived  from  Verbs. 

147.  i.  The  suffix  -tor  (-sor),  Fem.  -trlx,  denotes  the  agent ;  as, — 

victor,  victrix,  victor;  defensor,  defender. 

Note. — The  suffix  -tor  is  occasionally  appended  to  noun  stems;  as, — 

gladiator,  gladiator  (from  gladius) . 

2.  The  suffix  -or  (originally  -os)  denotes  an  activity  or  a  condi¬ 
tion  ;  as,  — 

amor,  timor ,fear;  dolor,  pain. 

3.  The  suffixes  -tio  (-sio),  Gen.  -onis,  and  -tus  (-sus),  Gen.  -us, 
denote  an  action  as  in  process ;  as,  — 

venatio,  hunting;  obsessio,  blockade;  gemitus,  sighing;  cursus, 
running. 

NOTE.  —  Rarer  endings  with  the  same  force  are  :  — 

a)  -tura,  -sura ;  as,  — 

sepultura,  burial ;  mensura,  measuring. 

b )  -ium;  as, — 

gaudium,  rejoicing. 

c )  -ldo,  as, — 

cupldd,  desire. 

109 


no 


Word- Formation. 


4.  The  suffixes  -men,  -mentum,  -crum,  -trum,  -bulum,  -culum* 
denote  the  means  or  place  of  an  action  ;  as,  — 

lumen  (luc-s-men),  light ;  vocabulum ,  word ; 

ornamentum,  ornament ;  documentum,  proofs 

sepulcrum,  grave ;  aratrum,  plough ; 

vehiculum,  carriage. 


2.  Nouns  derived  from  Nouns. 


148.  1.  Diminutives  end  in  — 


-ulus, 

Ola, 

-ulum) 

-olus, 

(-ola, 

-olum),  after  a  vowel 

-cuius, 

(-cula, 

-culum) 

-ellus, 

(-ella. 

-ellum) 

-illus, 

(-ilia, 

-ilium) 

nldulus, 

virgula, 

oppidulum, 

filiolus, 

opusculum, 

tabella, 

lapillus, 


little  nest 
wand 
little  town 
little  son 
little  work 
tablet 
pebble 


(nidus) ; 
(virga) ; 
(oppidum) ; 
(filius)  ; 
(opus) ; 
(tabula) ; 
(lapis). 


Note  i.  —  It  will  be  observed  that  in  gender  the  Diminutives  follow  the  gender 
of  the  words  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Note  2.  —  The  endings  -ellus,  -illus  contain  the  primitive  form  of  the  diminu¬ 
tive  suffix,  viz.,  -lo-.  Thus  :  — 


&gel\u.s,feld,  for  ager-lus; 
lapillus,  pebble,  for  lapid-lus. 


2.  The  suffix  -ium  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates 
either  a  collection  of  such  persons  or  their  f miction ;  as,  — 

collegium,  a  corporation ,  body  of  colleagues  (collega); 

sacerdotium,  priestly  function  (sacerdos). 


3.  The  suffixes  -arium,  -etum,  -lie  designate  a  place  where 
objects  are  kept  or  are  found  in  abundance ;  as, — 

columbarium,  dove-cote  (columba) ; 
ollvetum,  olive-orchard  (oliva)  ; 

ovlle,  sheep-fold  (ovis). 


Nouns.  —  Adjectives. 


Ill 


4.  The  suffix  -atus  denotes  official  position  or  honor ;  as,  — 

consulates,  consulship  (consul). 

5.  The  suffix  -ina  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates  a 
vocation  or  the  place  where  it  is  carried  on  ;  as,  — 

doctrlna,  teaching  (doctor,  teacher)  ; 
mediclna,  the  art  of  healing  (medicus,  physician ) ; 
sutrlna,  cobbler's  shop  (sutor,  cobbler ) . 

6.  Patronymics  are  Greek  proper  names  denoting  son  of  .  . 
daughter  of  ...  .  They  have  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

a )  Masculines :  -ides,  -ades,  -Ides ;  as,  Priamides,  son  of 
Priam  ;  Aeneades,  son  of  Aeneas ;  Pelides,  son  of  Peleus. 

b)  Feminines:  -eis,  -is,  -ias ;  as,  Nereis,  daughter  of  Nereus ; 
Atlantis,  daughter  of  Atlas ;  Thaumantias,  daughter  of 
Thaumas. 

3.  Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives. 

149.  The  suffixes  -tas  (-itas),  -tudo  (-itudo),  -ia,  -itia  are  used 
for  the  formation  of  abstract  nouns  denoting  qualities ;  as, — 

bonita.s,  goodness ;  celeritas,  swiftness;  magnitud  b,  greatness  ]  auda- 
cia,  boldness ;  amlcitia,  friendship. 

B.  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Adjectives  derived  from  Verbs. 

150.  1.  The  suffixes  -bundus  and  -cundus  give  nearly  the  force 
of  a  present  participle ;  as,  — 

tremebundus ,  trembling;  jucundus  (juvo),  pleasing. 

2.  The  suffixes  -ax  and  -ulus  denote  an  biclination  or  tendency , 
mostly  a  faulty  one ;  as,  — 

loquax,  loquacious ;  credulus,  credidous. 

3.  The  suffix  -idus  denotes  a  state ;  as, — 

calidus,  hot ;  timidus,  timid ;  cupidus,  eager. 

4.  The  suffixes  -ilis  and  -bilis  denote  capacity  or  ability ,  usually  in 
a  passive  sense  ;  as,  — 

fragilis,yr^//^  (i.e.  capable  of  being  broken)  ; 
docilis,  docile. 


1 12 


Word-Formation. 


2.  Adjectives  derived  from  Nouns. 

a)  From  Common  Nouns. 

151.  i.  The  suffixes  -eus  and  -inus  are  appended  to  names  of  sub 
stances  or  materials  ;  as,  — 

aureus ,  of  gold ;  ferreus,  of  iro7i ;  faginus,  of  beech. 


2.  The  suffixes  -ius,  -icus,  -Ilis,  -alis,  -aris,  -arius,  -nus,  -anus, 
-Inus,  -Ivus,  -ensis  signify  belonging  to ,  comiected  with ;  as,  — 


oratorius,  oratorical ; 
bellicus,  pertaining  to  war ; 
clvllis,  civil ; 
regalis,  regal; 
consularis,  consular ; 


legionarius,  legionary ; 
paternus,  paternal ; 
urbanus,  of  the  city ; 
marlnus,  marine ; 
aestivus,  pertaining  to  summer  ; 


circensis,  belonging  to  the  circus. 


3.  The  suffixes  -osus  and  -lentus  denote  fullness ;  as,  — 

perlculosus,  full  of  danger ,  gloriosus,  glorious ; 

dangerous ;  opulentus,  wealthy. 

4.  The  suffix  -tus  has  the  force  of  provided  with  ;  as,  — 

barbatus,  bearded ;  stellatus,  set  with  stars. 


b)  From  Proper  Names. 

152.  1.  Names  of  persons  take  the  suffixes  :  -anus,  -ianus,  -Inus  ; 
as,  — 

Catonianus,  belonging  to  Cato ;  Flautlnus,  belo?iging  to  Plautus. 

2.  Names  of  nations  take  the  suffixes  -icus,  -ius  ;  as, — 

G-ermanicus,  German  ;  Thracius,  Thracian. 

3.  Names  of  places  take  the  suffixes  -anus,  -Inus,  -ensis,  -aeus, 
-ius  ;  as,  — - 

Romanus,  Roman  ;  Atheniensis,  Athenian ; 

Amerlnus,  of  Ameria ;  Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna  ; 

Corinthius,  Corinthian. 

Note. - anus  and  -ensis,  appended  to  names  of  countries,  designate 

something  stationed  hi  the  country  or  connected  with  it,  but  not 
indigenous ;  as,  — 

bellum  Africanum,  a  war  {of  Romans  with  Romans )  in  Africa. 

bellum  Hispaniense,  a  war  carried  on  in  Spain. 

legiones  Gallicanae  {Roman)  legions  stationed  in  Gaul. 


Adjectives. —  Verbs.  1 13 

3.  Adjectives  derived  from  Adjectives. 

153.  Diminutives  in  -lus  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parvolus,  little ; 

misellus  (passer),  poor  little  ( sparrow )  ; 

pauperculus,  needy. 

4.  Adjectives  derived  from  Adverbs. 

154.  These  end  in  -ernus,  -ternus,  -tinus,  -tinus  ;  as,  — 


hodiernus,  of  to-day  (hodie) ; 

hesternus,  of  yesterday  (herl) ; 

intestlnus,  internal  (intus) ; 

diu  tinus,  long-lasting  (diu). 


C.  VERBS. 


1.  Verbs  derived  from  Verbs. 


155.  1.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives.  These  end  in  -sco,  and  are 
formed  from  Present  Stems.  They  denote  the  beginning  of  an  action  ; 
as, — 


labasco, 

horresco, 

tremescS, 

obdormisco, 


begin  to  totter 
grow  rough 
begin  to  tremble 
fall  asleef 


(from  lab5) ; 
(from  horreo) ; 
(from  tremo)  ; 
(from  dormio). 


2.  Frequentatives  or  Intensives.  These  denote  a  repeated 
or  energetic  action.  They  are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and 
end  in  -to  or  -so.  Those  derived  from  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation 
end  in  -ito  (not  -ato,  as  we  should  expect).  Examples  of  Frequenta¬ 
tives  are  — 

jactS,  toss  about,  brandish  (from  jacid,  hurl) ; 

curso,  run  hither  and  thither  (from  curro,  run)  ; 

volito,  flit  about  (from  volo,y?y). 


a.  Some  double  Frequentatives  occur;  as, — 

cantitS,  sing  over  and  over  (canto); 

cursitd,  keep  running  about  (curso) ; 

ventito,  keep  coming. 

b.  agitS,  set  in  motion ,  is  formed,  from  the  Present  Stem. 


Word-Formation. 


114 

3.  Desideratives.  These  denote  a  desire  to  do  so7nethmg.  They 
are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and  end  in  -urio ;  as,  — 

esurio,  desire  to  eat ,  am  hungry  (edo)  ; 

parturio,  want  to  bring  forth ,  am  in  labor  (pario). 


2.  Verbs  derived  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives 
(Denominatives) . 


156.  Denominatives  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  mostly  transitive, 
those  of  the  Second  exclusively  intransitive.  Those  of  the  Third  and 
Fourth  Conjugations  are  partly  transitive,  partly  intransitive.  Exam¬ 
ples  are  — 

a )  From  Nouns:  — 


frauds, 

defraud 

(fraus)  ; 

vestio, 

clothe 

(vestis)  ; 

floreo, 

bloom 

(flSs). 

Adjectives : 
libero, 

free 

(liber)  ; 

saevio, 

be  fierce 

(saevus). 

D.  ADVERBS. 

157.  1.  Adverbs  derived  from  verbs  are  formed  from  the  Participial 
Stem  by  means  of  the  suffix  -im  ;  as,  — 

certatim,  C77iulously  (certo) ; 
cursim,  in  haste  (curro)  ; 
statim,  i77i77iediately  (sto). 

2.  Adverbs  derived  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  formed  :  — 

a )  With  the  suffixes  -tim  (-sim),  -atim  ;  as, — 

gradatim,  step  by  step  ; 
paulatim,  gradually ; 
virltim,  7nan  by  77ian. 

b)  With  the  suffix  -tus  ;  as, — 

antiquitus,  of  old', 
radicitus,  fro77i  the  roots. 

c )  With  the  suffix  -ter  ;  as,  — 

breviter,  briefly. 


Compounds. 


115 


II.  COMPOUNDS. 

158.  I.  Compounds  are  formed  by  the  union  of  simple 
words.  The  second  memb'er  usually  contains  the  essential 
meaning  of  the  compound ;  the  first  member  expresses 
some  modification  of  this. 

2.  Vowel  changes  often  occur  in  the  process  of  composition. 
Thus :  — 

a.  In  the  second  member  of  compounds.  (See  §  7.  1.) 

b.  The  final  vowel  of  the  stem  of  the  first  member  of  the  com¬ 
pound  often  appears  as  i  where  we  should  expect  oor  a; 
sometimes  it  is  dropped  altogether,  and  in  case  of  consonant 
stems  1  is  often  inserted  ;  as,  — 

signifer,  standard-bearer ; 
tubicen,  trumpeter ; 
magnanimus,  high-minded ; 
matricida,  matricide. 

159.  Examples  of  Compounds. 

1.  Nouns:  — 

a)  Preposition  -f  Noun  ;  as,  — 

de-decus,  disgrace ; 
pro-avus,  great-grandfather. 

b)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

agri-cola,  farmer ; 
fratri-clda,  fratricide. 

2.  Adjectives :  — 

a)  Preposition  +  Adjective  (or  Noun)  ;  as,~ 

per-magnus,  very  great ; 
sub-obscurus,  rather  obscure ; 
a-mens,  frantic. 

b)  Adjective  +  Noun  ;  as,  — 

magn-animus,  great-hearted  ; 
celeri-pes,  swift-footed. 

c)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

parti-ceps,  sharing ; 
morti-fer,  death-dealing. 


ii  6 


Word-Formation. 


3.  Verbs:  — 

The  second  member  is  always  a  verb.  The  first  may  be  — 

a)  A  Noun  ;  as,  — 

aedi-fico,  build. 

b)  An  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

ampli-fico,  enlarge. 

c )  An  Adverb ;  as,  — 

male-dlco,  rail  at. 

d )  Another  Verb;  as, — 

cale-facio,  make  warm. 

e)  A  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

ab-jung5,  detach ; 
re-fero,  bring  back ; 
dis-cerno,  distinguish ; 

ex-spectd,  await. 

Note.  —  Here  belong  the  so-called  Inseparable  Prepositions  :  — 

ambi-  (amb-),  around ; 

dis-  (dir-,  dl-),  apart ,  asunder  ; 

por-,  forward ; 

red-  (re-),  back ; 

sed-  (se-),  apart  from  ; 

ve-,  without. 

4.  Adverbs :  — 

These  are  of  various  types  ;  as,  — 

antea,  before ; 

llico  (in  loco),  on  the  sfot ; 
imprimis,  especially ; 
obviam  in  the  way. 


Part  V. 


SYNTAX. 

- ♦ - 

160.  Syntax  treats  of  the  use  of  words  in  sentences. 

Chapter  I. — Sentences . 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 

161.  Sentences  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — • 

1.  Declarative,  which  state  something ;  as, — 

puer  scrlbit,  the  boy  is  writing. 

2.  Interrogative,  which  ask  a  question ;  as,  — 

quid  puer  scrlbit,  what  is  the  boy  writing ? 

3.  Exclamatory,  which  are  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation ;  as, — 

quot  libros  scrlbit,  how  ?nany  books  he  writes  ! 

4.  Imperative,  which  express  a  command  or  an  admonition  ;  as, — 

scribe,  write  ! 

FORM  OF  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES. 

162.  Questions  may  be  either  Word-Questions  or  Sen¬ 
tence-Questions. 

1.  Word-Questions.  These  are  introduced  by  the  various 
interrogative  pronouns  and  adverbs;  such  as  —  quis,  qul, 
qualis,  quantus,  quot,  quotiens,  quo,  qua,  etc.  Thus:  — 

quis  venit,  who  comes  ? 

quam  diu  manebit,  how  long  will  he  stay  t 

117 


Syntax. 


ii  8 


2.  Sentence-Questions.  These  are  introduced  — 

a)  By  nonne  implying  the  answer  i  yes  ’ ;  as, — 
nonne  vides,  do  you  not  see? 

b)  By  num  implying  the  answer  1  no 1 ;  as,  — 

num  exspectas,  do  you  expect  ?  (i.e.you  don't  expect ,  do  you  ?) 

c)  By  the  enclitic  -ne,  appended  to  the  emphatic  word  (which 
usually  stands  first),  and  simply  asking  for  information ; 
as, — 

videsne,  do  you  see? 

A  question  introduced  by  -ne  may  receive  a  special  impli¬ 
cation  from  the  context ;  as,  — 
sensistlne,  did  you  not  perceive? 

d)  Sometimes  by  no  special  word,  particularly  in  expressions  of 
surprise  or  mdignation ;  as,  — 

tu  in  judicum  conspectum  venire  audes,  do  you  dare  to 

come  into  the  presence  of  the  judges  ? 

3.  Rhetorical  Questions.  These  are  questions  merely  in 
form,  being  employed  to  express  an  emphatic  assertion ; 
as,  quis  dubitat,  who  doubts  ?  ( =  no  one  doubts'). 


4.  Double  Questions.  Double  Questions  are  introduced 
by  the  following  particles  :  — 

utrum  ...  an ; 

-ne . an ; 

-  ....  an. 


If  the  second  member  is  negative,  annon  (less  often  necne)  is  used. 
Examples :  — 

utrum  honestum  est  an  turpe, 
honestumne  est  an  turpe, 
honestum  est  an  turpe, 
suntne  dl  annon,  are  there  gods  or  not  ? 


•  is  it  ho7iorable  or  base  ? 


a.  By  an  ellipsis  of  the  first  member,  an  sometimes  stands  alone. 
Its  force  depends  upon  the  context ;  as,  — 

A  rebus  gerendls  abstrahit  senectus.  Quibus?  An 
els  quae  juventute  geruntur  et  vlribus  ?  Old  age  {it  is 
alleged')  withdraws  men  from  active  pursuits.  From  what 
Pursuits  ?  Is  it  not  merely  from  those  which  are  carried  on 
by  the  strength  of  youth  ? 


Simple  and  Compoimd  Sentences .  119 

5.  Answers. 

a.  The  answer  Yes  is  expressed  by  ita,  etiam,  vero, 
sane,  or  by  repetition  of  the  verb ;  as,  — 

1  vlsne  locum  mutemus  ? 1  1  sane.’  1 Shall  we  change  the 
place  ? 1  6  Certainly ? 

6  estisne  vos  legatl  ?  1  ‘  sumus.1  i  Are  you  envoys  f 1  i  Yes? 

b.  The  answer  No  is  expressed  by  non,  minime, 
minime  vero,  or  by  repeating  the  verb  with  a 
negative ;  as,  — 

‘  jam  ea  praeteriit?’  ‘non.’  i  Has  it  passed?'  ‘No? 

1  estne  f rater  intus  ?  1  1  non  est.’  ‘  Is  your  brother  within  ?' 
‘No? 

SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

163.  The  two  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  Sub¬ 
ject  and  Predicate. 

The  Subject  is  that  concerning  which  something  is  said , 
asked ,  etc.  The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said,  asked , 
etc.,  concerning  the  Subject. 

SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

164.  Sentences  containing  but  one  Subject  and  one 
Predicate  are  called  Simple  Sentences,  those  containing 
more  are  called  Compound  Sentences.  Thus  puer  libros 
legit,  the  boy  reads  books,  is  a  Simple  Sentence ;  but  puer 
libros  legit  et  epistulas  scrlbit,  the  boy  reads  books  and 
writes  letters,  is  a  Compound  Sentence.  The  different 
members  of  a  Compound  Sentence  are  called  Clauses. 

165.  Coordinate  and  Subordinate  Clauses.  Clauses  which 
stand  upon  an  equality  are  called  Coordinate  ;  a  Clause  dependent 
upon  another  is  called  Subordinate.  Thus  in  puer  libros  legit  et 
epistulas  scrlbit  the  two  clauses  are  Coordinate ;  but  in  puer  libros 
legit  quos  pater  scrlbit,  the  boy  reads  the  books  which  his  father  writes , 
the  second  clause  is  Subordinate  to  the  first. 


120 


Syntax. 


Chapter  II. —  Syntax  of  Nouns. 

SUBJECT. 

166.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  Verb  (i.e.  any  form  of 
the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  or  Imperative)  is  in  the  Nomi¬ 
native  Case. 

1.  The  Subject  may  be  — 

a )  A  Noun  or  Pronoun  ;  as,  — 

puer  scrlbit,  the  boy  writes ; 
hie  scrlbit,  this  man  writes. 

b )  An  Infinitive  ;  as,  — 

decorum  est  pro  patria  morl,  to  die  for  one's  country  is  a 

noble  thing. 

c )  A  Clause  ;  as,  — 

opportune  accidit  quod  venistl,  it  happened  opportunely 

that  you  arrived. 

2.  A  Personal  Pronoun  as  Subject  is  usually  implied  in  the  Verb, 
and  is  not  separately  expressed  ;  as,  — 

scrlbo,  I  write ;  videt,  he  sees. 

a.  But  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  contrast  the  Pronoun  is 
expressed  ;  as,  — 

ego  scrlbo  et  tu  legis,  /  write,  and  you  read. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  easily  supplied 
from  the  context,  especially  the  auxiliary  sum  ;  as,  — 

recte  ille  (sc.  facit),  he  docs  rightly ;  consul  profectus  (sc.  est),  the 
consul  set  out. 


PREDICATE  NOUNS. 

167.  A  Predicate  Noun  is  one  connected  with  the  Sub¬ 
ject  by  some  form  of  the  verb  Sum  or  a  similar  verb. 

168.  A  Predicate  Noun  agrees  with  its  Subject  in 
Case  ; 1  as,  — 


1  For  the  Predicate  Genitive  see  §§  198,  3;  203,  5. 


Predicate  Norms.  — Appositives. 


121 


Cicero  orator  fuit,  Cicero  was  an  orator ; 

Numa  creatus  est  rex,  Numa  was  elected  king. 

1.  When  possible  the  Predicate  Noun  usually  agrees  with  its  Sub¬ 
ject  in  Gender  also ;  as,  — 

philosophia  est  vitae  magistra,  philosophy  is  the  guide  of  life. 

2.  Besides  sum  the  verbs  most  frequently  accompanied  by  a  Predi¬ 
cate  Noun  are  — 

a )  flo,  evado,  exsisto  ;  maneo  ;  videor  ;  as,  — 

Croesus  non  semper  mansit  rex,  Croesus  did  not  always 
remain  king. 

b)  Passive  verbs  of  making ,  calling,  regarding ,  etc. ;  as,  ere  or, ^ 

appellor,  habeor ;  as,  — 

Romulus  rex  appellatus  est,  Romulus  was  called  king; 
habitus  est  deus,  he  was  regarded  as  a  god. 


APPOSITIVES. 

169.  i.  An  Appositive  is  a  Noun  explaining  or  defin¬ 
ing  another  Noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  — - 

Cicero  consul,  Cicero ,  the  Consul; 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome. 

2.  An  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Case  ;  as,  — 

opera  Ciceronis  oratoris,  the  works  of  Cicero ,  the  orator ; 

apud  Herodotum,  patrem  historiae,  in  the  works  of  Herodotus ,  the 
father  of  history. 

3.  When  possible  the  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Gen¬ 
der  also ;  as,  — 

assentatio  adjutrlx  vitioruva.,  flattery ,  the  promoter  of  evils. 

4.  A  Locative  may  take  in  Apposition  the  Ablative  of  urbs  or 
oppidum,  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

CorinthI,  urbe  praeclara,  or  in  urbe  praeclara,  at  Corinth ,  a  famoris 
city. 

5.  Partitive  Apposition.  A  Noun  denoting  a  whole  is  frequently 
followed  by  an  Appositive  denoting  a  part ;  as,  — 

mllites,  fortissimus  quisque,  hostibus  restiterunt,  the  soldiers ,  all 
the  bravest  of  them ,  resisted  the  enemy. 


122 


Syntax . 


THE  CASES. 

THE  NOMINATIVE. 


170.  The  Nominative  is  confined  to  its  use  as  Subject, 
Appositive,  or  Predicate  Noun,  as  already  explained.  See 
§§  166-169. 

THE  VOCATIVE. 


171.  The  Vocative  is  the  Case  of  direct  address;  as, — 

credite  mihi,  judices,  believe  7ne,  judges. 

1.  By  a  species  of  attraction,  the  Nominative  is  occasionally  used 
for  the  Vocative,  especially  in  poetry  and  formal  prose;  as,  audi  tu, 
populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  people  ! 

2.  Similarly  the  Appositive  of  a  Vocative  may,  in  poetry,  stand  in 
the  Nominative ;  as,  nate,  mea  magna  potentia  solus,  O  son ,  alone 
the  source  of  my  great  power. 


THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

172.  The  Accusative  is  the  Case  of  the  Direct  Object. 

173.  The  Direct  Object  may  express  either  of  the  two 
following  relations  :  — 

A.  The  Person  or  Thing  Affected  by  the  action;  as, — 

consulem  interfecit,  he  slew  the  consul ; 
lego  librum,  I  read  the  book. 

B.  The  Result  Produced  by  the  action;  as, — 

librum  scrips!,  I  wrote  a  book  (i.e.  produced  one)  ; 
templum  struit,  he  constructs  a  temple. 

174.  Verbs  that  admit  a  Direct  Object  of  either  of  these 
two  types  are  Transitive  Verbs. 

a.  Verbs  that  regularly  take  a  Direct  Object  are  sometimes  used 
without  it.  They  are  then  said  to  be  employed  absolutely ; 
as,  — 

rumor  est  meum  gnatum  amare,  it  is  rumored  that  my 
son  is  in  love. 


The  Accusative. 


123 


Accusative  of  the  Person  or  Thing  Affected. 

175.  1.  This  is  the  most  frequent  use  of  the  Accu¬ 
sative  ;  as  in  — - 

parentes  amamus,  we  love  our  parents ; 
mare  aspicit,  he  gazes  at  the  sea. 

2.  The  following  classes  of  Verbs  taking  an  Accusative  of  this  kind 
are  worthy  of  note  :  — 

a )  Many  Intransitive  Verbs,  when  compounded  with  a  Preposi¬ 
tion,  become  Transitive.  Thus:  — 

1)  Compounds  of  circum,  praeter,  trails;  as, — 

hostes  circumstare,  to  surround  the  ene7ny ; 
urbem  praeterlre,  to  pass  by  the  city ; 
muros  transcendere,  to  climb  over  the  walls. 

2)  Less  frequently,  compounds  of  ad,  per,  in,  sub  ;  as,  — 

adlre  urbem,  to  visit  the  city ; 
peragrare  Italiam,  to  travel  through  Italy  ; 

inlre  magistratum,  to  take  office  ; 
sublre  periculum,  to  undergo  danger. 

b)  Many  Verbs  expressing  emotions,  regularly  Intransitive,  have 
also  a  Transitive  use  ;  as,  — 

queror  fatum,  I  lament  my  fate; 

doleo  ejus  mortem,  I  grieve  at  his  death  ; 

rldeo  tuam  stultitiam,  I  laugh  at  your  folly. 

So  also  lugeo,  maereo,  mourn ;  gemo,  bemoan ;  horreo, 
shudder ,  and  others. 

c)  The  impersonals  decet,  it  becomes  ;  dedecet,  it  is  unbecom- 
ing;  juvat,  it  pleases ,  take  the  Accusative  of  the  Person 
Affected ;  as,  — 

me  decet  haec  dlcere,  it  becomes  me  to  say  this. 

d)  In  poetry  many  Passive  Verbs,  in  imitation  of  Greek  usage, 
are  employed  as  Middles  (§  256,  1  ;  2),  and  take  the  Ac¬ 
cusative  as  Object;  as, — 

gale  am  induitur,  he  puts  on  his  helmet ; 
clnctus  tempora  hedera,  havitig  bound  his  temples  with 
ivy ; 

nodo  sinus  collecta,  having  gathered  her  dress  in  a  knot. 


124 


Syntax. 


Accusative  of  the  Result  Produced. 

176.  i.  The  ordinary  type  of  this  Accusative  is  seen  in 
such  expressions  as  — 

librum  scrlbo,  I  write  a  book  ; 
domum  aedifico,  I  build  a  house. 

2.  Many  Verbs  usually  Intransitive  take  a  Neuter  Pronoun ,  or 
Adjective ,  as  an  Accusative  of  Result.  Thus  :  — 

a )  A  Neuter  Pronoun  ;  as,  — 

haec  gemebat,  he  made  these  moans ; 

illud  glorior,  I  make  this  boast ; 

eadem  pec  cat,  he  makes  the  same  mistakes. 

b)  A  Neuter  Adjective,  —  particularly  Adjectives  of  number  or 
amount ,  —  multum,  multa,  pauca,  etc. ;  also  nihil ;  as,  — 

multa  dubito,  I  have  many  doubts ; 
pauca  studet,  he  has  few  interests  ; 
multum  valet,  he  has  great  stretigth ; 
nihil  progreditur,  he  makes  no  progress. 

NOTE.  —  In  poetry  other  Adjectives  are  freely  used  in  this  construction ;  as,  — 

minitantem  vana,  making  vain  threats  ; 
acerba  tuens ,  giving  a  fierce  look; 
dulce  loquentem,  sweetly  talking. 

3.  The  adverbial  use  of  several  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 
grows  out  of  this  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

multum  sunt  in  venatione,  they  are  much  engaged  in  hunting. 

a.  So  also  plurimum,  very  greatly \ \  plerumque,  generally ; 
aliquid,  somewhat ;  quid,  why?  nihil,  not  at  all ;  etc. 

4.  Sometimes  an  Intransitive  Verb  takes  an  Accusative  of  Result 
which  is  of  kindred  etymology  with  the  Verb.  This  is  called  a  Cog¬ 
nate  Accusative,  and  is  usually  modified  by  an  Adjective ;  as, — 

sempiternam  servitutem  serviat,  Ay  him  serve  a?i  everlasting  slavery ; 
vltam  duram  vlxl,  I  have  lived  a  hard  life. 

a.  Sometimes  the  Cognate  Accusative  is  not  of  kindred  ety¬ 
mology,  but  merely  of  kindred  meaning;  as, — 

stadium  currit,  he  runs  a  race  ; 

Olympia  vincit,  he  wins  an  Olytnpic  victory. 


The  Accusative. 


125 


5.  The  Accusative  of  Result  occurs  also  after  Verbs  of  tasting  and 
smelling ;  as, — 

piscis  mare  sapit,  the  fish  tastes  of  the  sea  ; 

orationes  antlquitatem  redolent,  the  speeches  smack  of  the  past. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Direct  Object  and  Predicate  Accusative. 

177.  1.  Many  Verbs  of  Making ,  Choosing ,  Calling, 
Showing ,  and  the  like,  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the 
Person  or  Thing  Affected,  the  other  a  Predicate  Accusa¬ 
tive  ;  as,  — 

me  heredem  fecit,  he  made  me  heir. 

Here  me  is  Direct  Object,  heredem  Predicate  Accusative. 

So  also  — 

eum  judicem  cepere,  they  took  hwi  as  judge', 
urbem  Romam  vocavit,  he  called  the  city  Rome', 
se  virum  praestitit,  he  showed  himself  a  man. 

2.  The  Predicate  Accusative  may  be  an  Adjective  as  well  as  a 
Noun ;  as,  — 

homines  caecos  reddit  cupiditas,  covetousness  renders  men  blind', 
Apollo  Socratem  sapientissimum  judicavit,  Apollo  adjudged  Soc¬ 
rates  the  wisest  man. 

a.  Some  Verbs,  as  reddo,  usually  admit  only  an  Adjective  as  the  Predi¬ 
cate  Accusative. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Direct  Object  becomes  the  Subject,  and  the 
Predicate  Accusative  becomes  Predicate  Nominative  (§  168.  2.  b)  ;  as, — 

urbs  Roma  vocata  est,  the  city  was  called  Rome. 

a.  Not  all  Verbs  admit  the  Passive  construction;  reddo  and  efficio,  for 
example,  never  take  it. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Person  and  Thing. 

178.  I.  Some  Verbs  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of 
the  Person  Affected,  the  other  of  the  Result  Produced. 
Thus : — 

a)  Verbs  of  reqiiesting  and  demanding,  as, — 

otium  dlvos  rogat,  he  asks  the  gods  for  rest ; 

me  duas  orationes  postulas,  you  deinand  two  speeches  of 


126 


Syntax. 


So  also  oro,  posco,  reposco,  exposed,  flagitd,  though 

some  of  these  prefer  the  Ablative  with  ab  to  the  Accusative 
of  the  Person  ;  as,  — 

opem  a  te  posco,  I  demand  aid  of  you. 

b)  Verbs  of  teaching  (doceo  and  its  compounds)  ;  as, — 
te  litteras  doceo,  I  teach  you  your  letters. 

c)  Verbs  of  inquiring]  as, — 

te  haec  rogo,  /  ask  you  this ; 
te  sententiam  rogo,  I  ask  you  your  opinion. 

d)  Several  Special  Verbs  ;  viz.  moneo,  admoneo,  commoneo, 
cogd,  accuso,  arguo,  and  a  few  others.  These  admit  only 
a  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  Accusative  of  the  Thing; 
as, — 

te  haec  moneo,  I  give  you  this  advice ; 

me  id  accusas,  you  bring  this  accusation  against  me  ; 

id  cogit  nos  natura,  nature  compels  us  (to)  this . 

e)  One  Verb  of  concealing ,  celo  ;  as,  — 

non  te  celavl  sermonem,  I  have  not  concealed  the  convex 

sation  from  you. 

2.  In  the  Passive  construction  the  Accusative  of  the  Person  be¬ 
comes  the  Subject,  and  the  Accusative  of  the  Thing  is  retained;  as, — 

omnes  artes  edoctus  est,  he  was  taught  all  accomplishments ; 
rogatus  sum  sententiam,  /  was  asked  my  opmion  ; 
aliquid  admonemur,  we  are  give?i  some  admonition. 

a.  Only  a  few  Verbs  admit  the  Passive  construction. 

Two  Accusatives  with  Compounds. 

179.  i.  Transitive  compounds  of  trans  may  take  two 
Accusatives,  one  dependent  upon  the  Verb,  the  other 
upon  the  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

mllites  flumen  traducit,  he  leads  his  soldiers  across  the  river. 

2.  With  other  compounds  this  construction  is  rare. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Accusative  dependent  upon  the  preposition  is 
retained;  as, — 

mllites  flumen  traducebantur,  the  soldiers  were  led  across  the  river. 


The  Accusative. 


127 


Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative. 

180.  1.  The  Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative  denotes  the  part 
to  which  an  action  or  quality  refers ;  as,  — 

tremit  artus,  literally,  he  trembles  as  to  his  limbs,  i.e.  his  limbs  tremble; 
ntida  genu,  lit.  bare  as  to  the  knee,  i.e.  with  knee  bare; 
manus  revinctus,  lit.  tied  as  to  the  hands,  i.e.  with  hands  tied. 

2.  Note  that  this  construction  — 

а)  Is  borrowed  from  the  Greek. 

б)  Is  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

c )  Usually  refers  to  a  part  of  the  body. 

d)  Is  used  with  Adjectives  as  well  as  Verbs. 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

181.  1.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  de¬ 
noted  by  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

quadraginta  annos  vlxit,  he  lived  forty  years ; 

hie  locus  passus  sescentos  aberat,  this  place  was  six  hundred  paces 
away.  »■ 

arbores  qulnquaginta  pedes  altae,  trees  fifty  feet  high. 
abhinc  septem  annos,  seven  years  ago. 

2.  Emphasis  is  sometimes  added  by  using  the  Preposition  per ;  as, 
per  biennium  laboravl,  I  toiled  throughout  two  years. 

Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion. 

182.  I.  The  Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion  is  used — - 

a)  With  names  of  Towns ,  Small  Islands,  and  Peninsulas  ;  as, — 

Romam  venl,  I  came  to  Rome  ; 

Athenas  proficlscitur,  he  sets  out  for  Athens  ; 

Delum  pervenl,  I  arrived  at  Delos. 

b)  With  domum,  domos,  rus ;  as, — 

domum  revertitur,  he  returns  honie  ; 
rus  lb  6,  I  shall  go  to  the  country. 

Note.  — When  domus  means  house  {i.e.  building),  it  takes  a  prep¬ 
osition;  as, — 

in  domum  veterem  remigrare,  to  move  back  to  an  old  house . 


128 


Syntax. 


2.  Other  designations  of  place  than  those  above  mentioned  require 
a  Preposition  to  denote  Limit  of  Motion;  as, — 

ad  Italiam  venit,  he  came  to  Italy. 

a.  The  Preposition  is  also  customary  with  the  Accusatives 
urbem  or  oppidum  when  they  stand  in  apposition  with 
the  name  of  a  town ;  as,  — 

Cirtam  in  urbem,  to  the  city  Cirta ; 

Genavam  ad  oppidum,  to  the  town  Geneva. 

b.  The  name  of  a  town  denoting  limit  of  motion  may  be  com¬ 
bined  with  the  name  of  a  country  or  other  word  dependent 
upon  a  preposition ;  as,  — 

Thurios  in  Italiam  pervectus,  carried  to  Thnrii  in  Italy ; 
cum  Acen  ad  exercitum  venisset,  when  he  had  co?ne  to 

the  army  at  Ace. 

3.  To  denote  toward ,  to  the  vicinity  of  in  the  vicinity  of  ad  is 
used ;  as,  — 

ad  Tarentum  venl,  I  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Tarentum ; 
ad  Cannas  pugna  facta  est,  a  battle  was  fought  near  Cannae. 

4.  In  poetry  the  Accusative  of  any  noun  denoting  a  place  may  be 
used  without  a  preposition  to  express  the  limit  of  motion;  as, — 

Italiam  venit,  he  came  to  Italy. 

5.  The  goal  notion  seems  to  represent  the  original  function  of  the 
Accusative  Case.  Traces  of  this  primitive  force  are  recognizable  in 
the  phrase  Infitias  Ire,  to  deny  (lit.  to  go  to  a  denial ),  and  a  few  other 
similar  expressions. 

Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

183.  The  Accusative,  generally  modified  by  an  Adjec¬ 
tive,  is  used  in  Exclamations  ;  as,  — 

me  miserum,  ah,  wretched  me! 

O  fallacem  spem,  oh,  deceptive  hope  ! 

Accusative  as  Subject  of  the  Infinitive. 

184.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Accusa¬ 
tive  ;  as,  — ■ 

video  liominem  ablre,  I  see  that  the  man  is  going  away. 


The  Accusative.  —  The  Dative. 


129 


Other  Uses  of  the  Accusative. 

185.  Here  belong  — 

1 .  Some  Accusatives  which  were  originally  Appositives  ;  viz.  — 

id  genus,  of  that  kind;  as,  homines  id  genus,  men  of  that  kind 

(originally  homines,  id  genus  hominum,  men,  that  kind 
of  men)  ; 

virile  secus,  muliebre  secus,  of  the  male  sex,  of  the  fe?nale  sex; 
meam  vicem,  tuam  vicem,  etc.,  for  my  part,  etc.  ; 
bonam  partem,  magnam  partem,  in  large  part ; 
maximam  partem,  for  the  most  part. 

2.  Some  phrases  of  doubtful  origin  ;  as,  — 

id  temporis,  at  that  time ;  quod  si,  but  if; 

id  aetatis,  at  that  time;  cetera,  in  other  respects. 


THE  DATIVE. 

186.  The  Dative  case  in  general  expresses  relations 
which  are  designated  in  English  by  the  prepositions  to 

and  for. 


Dative  of  Indirect  Object. 

187.  The  commonest  use  of  the  Dative  is  to  denote  the 
person  to  whom  something  is  given,  said,  or  done.  Thus :  — 
I.  With  transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accu¬ 
sative  ;  as,  — 

hanc  pecuniam  mihi  dat,  he  gives  me  this  ?noney ; 
haec  nobis  dixit,  he  said  this  to  us. 

a.  Some  verbs  which  take  this  construction  (particularly 
dono  and  circumdo)  admit  also  the  Accusative  of  the 
person  along  with  the  Ablative  of  the  thing.  Thus :  — 

Either  Themistocli  munera  donavit,  he  presented  gifts  to 
Themistocles,  or 

Themistoclem  muneribus  donavit,  he  presented  Themis¬ 
tocles  with  gifts ; 

urbi  muros  circumdat,  he  builds  walls  around  the  city,  or 
urbem  muris  circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city  with  walls. 


130 


Syntax. 


II.  With  many  intransitive  verbs ;  as,  — 

nulll  laborl  cedit,  he  yields  to  no  labor . 

a.  Here  belong  many  verbs  signifying  favor,1  help,  injure, 
please,  displease,  trust,  distrust,  cojnmand,  obey,  serve,  resist , 
indulge,  spare,  pardon,  envy ,  threaten,  be  angry,  believe, 
persuade,  and  the  like  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  popularibus  favet,  Caesar  favors  (i.e.  is  favor¬ 
able  to)  the  popular  party ; 
amlcls  confido,  I  trust  {to)  my  friends; 

Orgetorlx  Helvetiis  persuasit,  Orgetorix  persuaded 
{made  it  acceptable  to)  the  Helvetians ; 
bonis  nocet  qul  malls  parcit,  he  injures  {does  harm  to) 
the  good,  who  spares  the  bad. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  verbs  do  not  take  the  Dative  by 
virtue  of  their  apparent  English  equivalence,  but  simply  because  they  are  intransi¬ 
tive,  and  adapted  to  an  indirect  object.  Some  verbs  of  the  same  apparent  English 
equivalence  are  transitive  and  govern  the  Accusative;  as,  juvo,  laedo,  delecto. 
Thus:  audentes  deus  juvat,  God  helps  the  bold;  neminem  laesit,  he 
injured  no  one. 

b.  Verbs  of  this  class  are  used  in  the  passive  only  impersonally  ; 
as,  — 

tibi  parcitur,  you  are  spared ; 

mihi  persuadetur,  lam  being  persuaded ; 

el  invidetur,  he  is  envied. 

C.  Some  of  the  foregoing  verbs  admit  also  a  Direct  Object  in  connection 
with  the  Dative ;  as,  — 

mihi  mortem  minitatur,  he  threatens  me  with  death  {threatens 

death  to  me) . 

s  III.  With  many  verbs  compounded  with  the  preposi¬ 
tions  :  ad,  ante,  circum,  com-,2  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  pro, 
sub,  super. 

These  verbs  fall  into  two  main  classes,  — 

I.  Many  simple  verbs  which  cannot  take  a  Dative  of  the  indirect 
object  become  capable  of  doing  so  when  compounded  with  a  preposi¬ 
tion  ;  as,  — 

affllctis  succurrit,  he  helps  the  ajflicted; 
exercitui  praefuit,  he  was  in  command  of  the  army ; 
intersum  consilils,  I  share  iti  the  deliberations. 

1  Many  such  verbs  were  originally  intransitive  in  English  also,  and  once  governed 

the  Dative.  2  This  was  the  original  form  of  the  preposition  cum. 


The  Dative. 


131 

2.  Many  transitive  verbs  which  take  only  a  direct  object  become 
capable,  when  compounded,  of  taking  a  Dative  also  as  indirect 
object ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  pudorem  anteponit,  he  puts  honor  before  money  ; 
inicere  spem  amlcls,  to  inspire  hope  in  one's  friends ; 

Labienum  exercitui  praefecit,  he  put  Labierms  in  charge  of  the 
army. 

Dative  of  Reference. 

188.  1.  The  Dative  of  Reference  denotes  the  person  to 
whom  a  statement  refers ,  of  whom  it  is  true ,  or  to  whom  it 
is  of  interest ;  as,  — 

mihi  ante  oculos  versaris,  you  hover  before  my  eyes  (lit.  hover  before 
the  eyes  to  me)  ; 

ill!  severitas  amorem  non  deminuit,  in  his  case  severity  did  not 
diminish  love  (lit.  to  him  severity  did  not  diminish); 
intercludere  hostibus  commeatum,  to  cut  off  the  supplies  of  the 
enemy. 

a.  Note  the  phrase  alicui  interdlcere  aqua  et  lg-ni,  to  interdict  one 
from  fire  and  water. 

Note.  —  The  Dative  of  Reference,  unlike  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object,  does 
not  modify  the  verb,  but  rather  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  It  is  often  used  where, 
according  to  the  English  idiom,  we  should  expect  a  Genitive ;  so  in  the  first  and 
third  of  the  above  examples. 

2.  Special  varieties  of  the  Dative  of  Reference  are  — 

a)  Dative  of  the  Local  Standpoint.  This  is  regularly  a 
participle;  as, — 

oppidum  prlmum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Eplro,  the 

first  town  of  Thessaly  as  you  co?ne  from  Epirtts  (lit. 
to  those  coming  from  Epirus). 

b)  Ethical  Dative.  This  name  is  given  to  those  Dative  con¬ 
structions  of  the  personal  pronouns  in  which  the  connection 
of  the  Dative  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  of  the  very 
slightest  sort ;  as,  — 

tu  mihi  istlus  audaciam  defendis  ?  tell  me,  do  you  defend 
that  man's  audacity  ? 

quid  mihi  Celsus  agit?  what  is  my  Celsus  doing ? 
quid  sibi  vult  ?  what  does  he  mean  ?  (lit.  wish  for  him¬ 
self?) 


132 


Syntax . 


c)  Dative  of  Person  Judging;  as, — 

erit  ille  mihi  semper  deus,  he  will  always  be  a  god  to  me 
(i.e.  in  my  opinion)  ; 

quae  ista  servitus  tam  claro  hominl,  how  can  that  be 

slavery  to  so  illustrious  a  man  (i.e.  to  his  mind)  ! 

d )  Dative  of  Separation.  Some  verbs  of  taking  away , 
especially  compounds  of  ab,  de,  ex,  ad,  govern  a  Dative  of 
the  person,  less  often  of  the  thing;  as, — 

honorem  detraxerunt  homini,  they  took  away  the  honor 
frotn  the  man ; 

Caesar  regl  tetrarchiam  eripuit,  Caesar  took  the  tetrarchy 

away  frotn  the  king ; 

silicl  scintillam  excudit,  he  struck  a  spark  fro?n  the  flint. 
Dative  of  Agency. 

189.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  agency  — 

1.  Regularly  with  the  Gerundive;  as,  — 

haec  nobis  agenda  sunt,  these  things  must  be  done  by  us  ; 
mihi  eundum  est,  /  must  go  (lit.  it  must  be  gone  by  me). 

a.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  a  with  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Gerundive ;  as,  — 

hostibus  a  nSbis  parcendum  est,  the  enemy  must  be  spared  by  us. 

2.  Much  less  frequently  with  the  compound  tenses  of  the  passive 
voice  and  the  perfect  passive  participle  ;  as,  — 

disputatio  quae  mihi  nuper  habita  est,  the  discussion  which  was 
recently  conducted  by  me. 

3.  Rarely  with  the  uncompounded  tenses  of  the  passive;  as, — 
honesta  bonis  virls  quaeruntur,  noble  ends  are  sought  by  good  men . 

Dative  of  Possession. 

190.  The  Dative  of  Possession  occurs  with  the  verb  esse 
in  such  expressions  as  :  — 

mihi  est  liber,  I  have  a  book  ; 

mihi  nomen  est  Marcus,  I  have  the  name  Marcus. 

I.  But  with  nomen  est  the  name  is  more  commonly  attracted  into 
the  Dative  ;  as,  mihi  Marco  nomen  est. 


The  Dative . 


133 


Dative  of  Purpose  or  Tendency. 

191.  The  Dative  of  Purpose  or  Tendency  designates 
the  end  toward  which  an  action  is  directed  or  the  direction  in 
which  it  tends.  It  is  used  — 

1.  Unaccompanied  by  another  Dative ;  as, — 

castrls  locum  deligere,  to  choose  a  place  for  a  camp ; 

legiones  praesidio  relinquere,  to  leave  the  legions  as  a  guard  (lit. 
for  a  guard)  ; 

receptul  canere,  to  sound  the  signal  for  a  retreat. 

2.  Much  more  frequently  in  connection  with  another  Dative  of  the 
person :  — 

a)  Especially  with  some  form  of  esse  ;  as,  — • 

fortunae  tuae  mihi  curae  sunt,  your  fortunes  are  a  care  to 
me  (lit.  for  a  care)  ; 

nobis  sunt  odio,  they  are  an  object  of  hatred  to  us  ; 
cui  bono  ?  to  whom  is  it  of  advantage? 

b)  With  other  verbs  ;  as,  — 

hos  tibi  munerl  mlsit,  he  has  sent  these  to  you  for  a 
present ; 

Pausanias  Atticis  venit  auxilio,  Pausanias  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  Athenians  (lit.  to  the  Athenians  for  aid). 

3.  In  connection  with  the  Gerundive  ;  as, — 

decemviri  legibus  scribundis,  decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws ; 
me  gerendo  bello  ducem  creavere,  me  they  have  7iiade  leader  for 
carrymg  on  the  war. 

NOTE.  —  This  construction  with  the  gerundive  is  not  common  till  Livy. 

Dative  with  Adjectives. 

192.  The  use  of  the  Dative  with  Adjectives  corresponds 
very  closely  to  its  use  with  verbs.  Thus  :  — 

I.  Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object  it  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying  :  friendly ,  unfriendly ,  similar ,  dissimilar ,  equal \ 
near ,  related  to ,  etc. ;  as,  — 

mihi  inimicus,  hostile  to  me ; 

sunt  proximl  Germanls,  they  are  next  to  the  Germans ; 
noxiae  poena  par  esto,  let  the  penalty  be  equal  to  the  damage . 


134 


Syntax. 


a.  For  propior  and  proximus  with  the  Accusative,  see 

§  141,  3* 

2.  Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Purpose,  the  Dative  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying :  suitable ,  adapted ,  fit ;  as,  — 

castris  idoneus  locus,  a  place  fit  for  a  camp ; 
apta  dies  sacrificio,  a  day  suitable  for  a  sacrifice. 

NOTE.  —  Adjectives  of  this  last  class  often  take  the  Accusative  with  ad. 

Dative  of  Direction. 

193.  In  the  poets  the  Dative  is  occasionally  used  to  denote  the 

direction  of  motion ;  as,  — 

it  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  heavenward ; 

cineres  rlvo  fluent!  jace,  cast  the  ashes  toward  the  flowing  stream. 

1.  By  an  extension  of  this  construction  the  poets  sometimes  use  the 
Dative  to  denote  the  limit  of  motion  ;  as,  — 

dum  Latio  deos  Inferret,  till  he  should  bring  his  gods  to  Latium. 


THE  GENITIVE. 

194.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and 
Verbs. 


GENITIVE  WITH  NOUNS. 


195.  With  Nouns  the  Genitive  is  the  case  which  defines 
the  meaning  of  the  limited  noun  more  closely.  This  relation  is 
generally  indicated  in  English  by  the  preposition  of.  There 
are  the  following  varieties  of  the  Genitive  with  Nouns:  — 


Genitive  of  Orig-in, 
Genitive  of  Material, 
Genitive  of  Possession 
Subjective  Genitive, 


Objective  Genitive, 
Genitive  of  the  Whole, 
Appositional  Genitive, 
Genitive  of  Quality. 


196.  Genitive  of  Origin  ;  as,  — 

Marcl  fllius,  the  son  of  Marcus. 

197.  Genitive  of  Material ;  as, — 

talentum  aurl,  a  talent  of  gold*, 
acervus  frumenti,  a  pile  of  g?'ain. 


The  Dative.  —  The  Genitive . 


135 


198.  Genitive  of  Possession  or  Ownership  ;  as,  — 

domus  Ciceronis,  Cicero's  house. 

1.  Here  belongs  the  Genitive  with  causa  and  gratia.  The  Geni¬ 
tive  always  precedes  ;  as,  — 

hominum  causa,  for  the  sake  of  7nen  ; 

meorum  amicorum  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  my  friends . 

2.  Instar  (lit.  image)  also  takes  the  Possessive  Genitive;  as, — 

equus  Instar  montis,  a  horse  as  large  as  a  mountain. 

3.  The  Possessive  Genitive  is  often  used  predicatively,  especially 
with  esse  and  fieri ;  as,  — 

domus  est  regis,  the  house  is  the  king's  ; 

stultl  est  in  errore  manere,  it  is  {the  park)  of  a  fool  to  remain  in 
error  ; 

de  bello  judicium  imperatoris  est,  non  mllitum,  the  decision  con¬ 
cerning  war  belongs  to  the  general^  not  to  the  soldiers. 

199.  Subjective  Genitive.  This  denotes  the  person  who  makes 
or  produces  something  or  who  has  a  feeling  ;  as,  — 

dicta  Platonis,  the  utterances  of  Plato  ; 
timores  llberorum,  the  fears  of  the  children. 

200.  Objective  Genitive.  This  denotes  the  object  of  an  action 
or  feeling]  as, — 

metus  deorum,  the  fear  of  the  gods  ; 
amor  llbertatis,  love  of  liberty ; 

consuetudo  bonorum  hominum,  intercourse  with  good  men. 

I.  This  relation  is  often  expressed  by  means  of  prepositions  ;  as, — 
amor  erga  parentes,  love  toward  one's  parents. 

201.  Genitive  of  the  Whole.  This  designates  the  whole  of 
which  a  part  is  taken.  It  is  used — •«. 

1.  With  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Comparatives,  Superlatives,  and  Ordinal 
Numerals ;  as,  — 

magna  pars  hominum,  a  great  part  of  mankind ; 
duo  mllia  peditum,  two  thousand foot-soldiers ; 
quis  mortalium,  who  of  mortals  ? 
major  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers ; 

ggns  maxima  Germanorum,  the  largest  tribe  of  the  Germans ; 
primus  omnium,  the  first  of  all. 


Syntax. 


136 

a.  Yet  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  we  often  find  ex  or  de  with 
the  Ablative,  regularly  so  with  Cardinal  numbers  and  quidam  ;  as,— 

fidelissimus  de  servis,  the  most  trusty  of  the  slaves  ; 
quidam  ex  amicis,  certain  of  his  friends  ; 
unus  ex  militibus,  one  of  the  soldiers . 

b.  In  English  we  often  use  of  where  there  is  no  relation  of  whole  to  part. 
In  such  cases  the  Latin  is  more  exact,  and  does  not  use  the  Genitive; 
as, — 

quot  vds  estis,  how  many  of  you  are  there? 

trecentl  conjuravimus,  three  hundred  of  us  have  conspired  (i.e. 

we,  three  hundred  in  number). 

• 

2.  The  Genitive  of  the  Whole  is  used  also  with  the  Nomi¬ 
native  or  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  of  Pronouns,  or  of  Adjectives 
used  substantively ;  also  with  the  Adverbs  parum,  satis,  and  partim 
when  used  substantively;  as, — 

quid  consili,  what  purpose  ? 

tan  turn  cibl,  so  much  food ; 

plus  auctoritatis,  more  authority ; 

minus  laboris,  less  labor ; 

satis  pecuniae,  enough  motley; 

parum  industriae,  too  little  industry. 

a.  An  Adjective  of  the  second  declension  used  substantively  may  be  em¬ 
ployed  as  a  Genitive  of  the  Whole;  as,  nihil  bom,  nothing  good. 

b.  But  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  agree  directly  with  the  noun  they 
limit ;  as,  nihil  dulcius,  nothing  sweeter. 

3.  Occasionally  we  find  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  dependent  upon 
Adverbs  of  place  ;  as,  — 

ubi  terrarum?  ubi  gentium?  where  in  the  world ? 

a.  By  an  extension  of  this  usage  the  Genitive  sometimes  occurs  in  depend¬ 
ence  upon  pridie  and  postridie,  but  only  in  the  phrases  pridie 
ejus  die!,  on  the  day  before  that ;  postridie  ejus  diet,  on  the  day 
after  that. 

202.  Appositional  Genitive.  The  Genitive  sometimes  has  the 

force  of  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

nomen  regis,  the  name  of  king', 
poena  mortis,  the  penalty  of  death] 
ars  scrlbendl,  the  art  of  writing. 

203.  Genitive  of  Quality.  The  Genitive  modified  by  an  Adjec¬ 
tive  is  used  to  denote  quality.  This  construction  presents  several 
varieties.  Thus  it  is  used  — 


The  Genitive. 


137 


1.  To  denote  some  internal  or  permanent  characteristic  of  a  person 
01  thing  i  as,  — 

vir  magnae  virtutis,  a  man  of  great  virtue ; 
rationes  ejus  modi,  considerations  of  that  sort . 

a.  Only  a  limited  nut'nber  of  Adjectives  occur  in  this  construction,  chiefly 
magnus,  maximus,  summus,  tantus,  along  with  ejus. 

2.  To  denote  measure  ( breadth ,  length,  etc.)  ;  as,  — 

fossa  qulndecim  pedum,  a  trench  fifteen  feet  wide  (or  deep)  ; 

exsilium  decern  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years. 

3.  By  omission  of  pretl  (price),  or  some  kindred  word,  tantl, 
quantl,  parvl,  magnl,  minoris,  minimi,  pluriml,  maximl  are  used 
predicatively  to  denote  indefinite  value ;  as,  — • 

nulla  studia  tantl  sunt,  no  studies  are  of  so  much  value  ; 

magnl  opera  ejus  exlstimata  est,  his  assistance  was  highly  esteetned. 

a.  Pluris  (not  strictly  an  adjective)  follows  the  same  analogy. 

4.  By  an  extension  of  the  notion  of  value,  quantl,  tantl,  pluris, 
and  minoris  are  also  used  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  to  denote 
indefinite  price;  as, — 

quantl  aedes  emistl,  at  how  high  a  price  did  you  purchase  the  house  ? 

5.  Any  of  the  above  varieties  of  the  Genitive  of  Quality  may  be 
used  predicatively  ;  as,  — 

tantae  molis  erat  Romanam  condere  gentem,  of  so  great  difficulty 
was  it  to  found  the  Rotnan  race. 

GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 

204.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  many  Adjectives,  to  limit 
the  extent  of  their  application.  Thus  :  — 

1.  With  Adjectives  signifying  desire,  knowledge ,  familiarity, 
memory,  participation,  power,  fulness,  and  their  opposites ;  as,  — 

studiosus  discendl,  desirous  of  learning ; 
perltus  belli,  skilled  in  war ; 

Insuetus  laboris,  unused  to  toil ; 

immemor  mandatl  tul,  unmindful  of  your  commission ; 

plgna  perlculorum  est  vita,  life  is  full  of  dangers. 

a.  Some  participles  used  adjectively  also  take  the  Genitive ;  as, — 

dlligens  veritatis,  fond  of  truth  ; 
amans  patriae,  devoted  to  one's  country. 


I3» 


Syntax . 


2.  Sometimes  with  proprius  and  communis ;  as, — - 

viri  propria  est  fortitudo,  bravery  is  characteristic  of  a  man. 
memoria  est  communis  omnium  artium,  memory  is  common  to  all 
professions. 

a.  proprius  and  communis  are  also  construed  with  the  Dative. 

3.  With  similis  the  Genitive  is  the  commoner  construction  in  Cicero, 
when  the  reference  is  to  living  objects  ;  as,  — 

fllius  patris  simillimus  est,  the  son  is  exactly  like  his  father. 
mel  similis,  like  me ;  vestrl  similis,  like  you. 

When  the  reference  is  to  things,  both  Genitive  and  Dative  occur ;  as,  — 
mors  somnS  (or  somni)  similis  est,  death  is  like  sleep. 

4.  In  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  the  use  of  the  Genitive  with  Adjectives 
is  extended  far  beyond  earlier  limits ;  as,  atrox  animl  .fierce  of  temper ;  incertus 
consill,  undecided  in  purpose. 

GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS. 

205.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  the  following  classes  of 
Verbs :  — 

Me  mini,  Reminiscor,  Obliviscor. 

206.  1.  When  referring  to  Persons  — 

a.  memini  always  takes  the  Genitive  of  personal  or  reflexive 
pronouns ;  as,  — 

mel  meminerls,  remember  me  ! 
nostri  meminit,  he  re?ne?nbers  us. 

With  other  words  denoting  persons  memini  takes  the  Accusative, 
rarely  the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

Sullam  memini,  /  recall  Sulla. 
vivorum  memini,  I  remember  the  living. 

b.  obliviscor  regularly  takes  the  Genitive  ;  as, — 

Epicuri  non  licet  oblivisci,  we  mustn't  forget  Epicurus. 

2.  When  referring  to  Things,  memini,  reminiscor,  oblivis¬ 
cor  take  sometimes  the  Genitive,  sometimes  the  Accusative,  without 
difference  of  meaning;  as, — 

animus  praeteritdrum  meminit,  the  mind  remembers  the  past ; 
meministine  nomina,  do  you  remember  the  names  ? 
reminiscere  veteris  incommodi,  remember  the  fortner  disaster ; 
reminiscens  acerbitatem,  remembering  the  severity. 


The  Genitive. 


T39 


/ 


a.  But  neuter  pronouns,  and  adjectives  used  substantively,  regularly  stand 
in  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

haec  meminl,  I  remember  this ; 

multa  reminlscor,  I  re7nember  many  things. 

3.  The  phrase  mihi  (tibi,  etc.)  in  mentem  venit,  following  the  analogy  of 
meminl,  takes  the  Genitive ;  as,  — 

civium  mihi  in  mentem  venit,  I  remember  the  citizens. 


Admoneo,  Commoneo,  Commonefacid . 

207.  These  verbs,  in  addition  to  an  Accusative  of  the 
person,  occasionally  take  a  Genitive  of  the  thing ;  as,  — 

te  admoneo  amlcitiae  nostrae,  I  remind  yon  of  our  friendship. 

a.  But  more  frequently  (in  Cicero  almost  invariably)  these  verbs  take  de 
with  the  Ablative ;  as,  — 

de  pecunia  me  admones,  you  remind  me  of  the  7noney. 

b.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  used  substantively  regularly  stands  in 
the  Accusative  (178.  1.  d )  ;  as,  — 

te  h5c  admoned,  I  give  you  this  warning. 

Verbs  of  Judicial  Action. 

208.  1.  Verbs  of  Accusing ,  Convicting ,  Acquitting  take 
the  Genitive  of  the  charge  ;  as, — 

me  furti  accusat,  he  accuses  me  of  theft ; 

Verrem  avaritiae  coarguit,  he  convicts  Verres  of  avarice ; 
impietatis  absolutus  est,  he  was  acquitted  of  blasphemy. 

2.  Verbs  of  Condemning  take  — 

a.  The  Genitive  of  the  charge ;  as, — 

pecuniae  publicae  damnatus,  condemned  (on  the  charge )  of 
embezzlement  (lit.  public  money)  ; 
capitis  damnatus,  condemtied  071  a  capital  charge  (lit.  on  a 
charge  involving  his  head). 

b.  The  Ablative  of  the  penalty ;  as, — 

capite  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  to  death ; 
mllle  nummls  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  (to  Pay) 
a  thousand  sesterces  (lit.  by  a  thousand  sesterces ,  Abl.  of 
Means). 


140 


Syntax. 


3.  Note  the  phrases  :  — 

V5tl  damnatus,  votl  reus,  having  attained  one's  prayer  (lit.  condemned  on  thi 
score  of  one's  vow)  ; 

de  vl,  ( accused ,  convicted,  etc.)  of  assault ; 
inter  sicariSs,  ( accused ,  convicted,  etc.)  of  murder. 

Genitive  with  Impersonal  Verbs. 

209.  1.  The  Impersonate  pudet,  paenitet,  miseret,  taedet, 
piget  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person  affected ,  along  with 
the  Genitive  of  the  person  or  thing  toward  whom  the  feeling 
is  directed ;  as,  — 

pudet  me  tul,  I  am  ashamed  of  you  (lit.  it  shames  me  of  you)  ; 
paenitet  me  hujus  factl,  I  repent  of  this  act ; 
eum  taedet  vitae,  he  is  weary  of  life ; 
pauperum  te  miseret,  you  pity  the  poor. 

a.  Instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  thing  we  often  find  an  Infinitive  or  Neuter 
Pronoun  used  as  subject  of  the  verb.  Thus  :  — 

me  paenitet  hoc  fecisse,  I  repent  of  having  done  this; 
me  hoc  pudet,  I  am  ashamed  of  this. 

2.  Misereor  and  miseresco  also  govern  the  Genitive;  as,— 
miseremini  sociorum,  pity  the  allies. 

Interest ,  Refert. 

210.  With  interest,  it  concerns ,  three  points  enter  into 
consideration ;  viz.  — 

d)  the  person  concerned ; 

b)  the  thing  about  zvhich  he  is  concerned ; 

c)  the  extent  of  his  concern. 

211.  1.  The  person  concerned  is  regularly  denoted  by 
the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

patris  interest,  it  concerns  the  father. 

a.  But  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  mel, 
tul,  etc .,  the  Latin  uses  the  Ablative  Singular  Feminine  of 
the  Possessive,  viz. :  mea,  tua,  etc. ;  as,  — 

mea  interest,  it  concerns  me. 


The  Genitive . 


141 

2.  The  thing  about  which  a  person  is  concerned  is 
denoted  — 

a)  by  a  Neuter  Pronoun  as  subject ;  as, — 

hoc  rel  publicae  interest,  this  concerns  the  state. 

b)  by  an  Infinitive;  as, — 

omnium  interest  valere,  it  concerns  all  to  keep  well. 

c )  by  an  Indirect  Question ;  as,  — 

mea  interest  quando  venias,  lam  concerned  as  to  when 
you  are  coining. 

3.  The  degree  of  concern  is  denoted  — 

a )  by  the  Genitive  (of  Quality)  :  magni,  parvl,  etc.  ;  as,  — 
mea  magni  interest,  it  concerns  me  greatly. 

b)  by  the  Adverbs,  magnopere,  magis,  maxime,  etc.  ;  as,  — 
clvium  minime  interest,  it  concerns  the  citizens  very  little. 

c )  by  the  Neuters,  multum,  plus,  minus,  etc. ;  as, — 
multum  vestra  interest,  it  concerns  you  much. 

4.  Refert  follows  interest  in  its  construction,  except  that  it  rarely 
takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person.  Thus:  — 

mea  refert,  it  concerns  me ; 

but  rarely  illlus  refert,  it  concerns  him. 

Genitive  with  Other  Verbs. 

212.  i.  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  sometimes  govern 
the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  indiges ,you  need  money. 

a.  These  verbs  more  commonly  take  the  Ablative  (§  214,  1)  ; 
indigeo  is  the  only  verb  which  has  a  preference  for  the 
Genitive. 

'2.  Potior,  though  usually  followed  by  the  Ablative,  sometimes  takes 
the  Genitive,  almost  always  so  in  Sallust;  and  regularly  in  the  phrase: 
potlrl  rerum,  to  get  control  of  affairs. 

3.  In  poetry  some  verbs  take  the  Genitive  in  imitation  of  the  Greek;  as, — 

desine  querellarum,  cease  your  complaints ; 
operum  solutl,  freed  from  their  tasks. 


142 


Syntax. 


THE  ABLATIVE. 

213.  The  Latin  Ablative  unites  in  itself  three  cases  which 
were  originally  distinct  both  in  form  and  in  meaning ;  viz.  — 

The  Ablative  or  from-case. 

The  Instrumental  or  with-case. 

The  Locative  or  where-case. 


The  uses  of  the  Latin  Ablative  accordingly  fall  into 
Genuine  Ablative  uses,  Instrumental  uses,  and  Locative 
uses. 


GENUINE  ABLATIVE  USES. 

Ablative  of  Separation. 

214.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  is  construed  sometimes 
with,  sometimes  without,  a  preposition. 

i.  The  following  words  regularly  take  the  Ablative  without  a 
preposition :  — 

a)  The  Verbs  of  freeing:  libero,  solvo,  levo  ; 
ft)  The  Verbs  of  depriving:  privo,  spolio,  exuo,  fraudo, 
nudo ; 

c)  The  Verbs  of  lacking :  ege5,  careo,  vaco ; 

d)  The  corresponding  Adjectives,  liber,  inanis,  vacuus, 
nudus,  and  some  others  of  similar  meaning. 

Thus :  — 

curls  liberatus,  freed  from  cares ; 

Caesar  hostes  armls  exuit,  Caesar  stripped  the  enemy  of 

their  arms ; 

caret  sensu  communl,  he  lacks  common  sense  ; 
auxilid  eget,  he  needs  help  ; 

bonorum  vita  vacua  est  metu,  the  life  of  the  good  is  free 
from  fear. 

Note  i. — Yet  Adjectives  and  llbero  may  take  the  preposition  ab,  —  regu¬ 
larly  so  with  the  Ablative  of  persons  ;  as,  — 

urbem  a  tyranno  liberarunt,  they  freed  the  city  from  the  tyrant. 

Note  2.-r-Indig,e5  usually  takes  the  Genitive.  See  §  212,  1,  a. 


The  Ablative. 


M3 


2.  Of  Verbs  signifying  to  keep  from ,  to  remove,  to  withdraw ,  some 
take  the  preposition,  others  omit  it.  The  same  Verb  often  admits  both 
constructions.  Examples  :  — 

abstinere  cibo,  to  abstain  front  food ; 

hostes  flnibus  prohibuerunt,  they  kept  the  enemy  from  their  borders ; 
praedones  ab  Insula  prohibuit,  he  kept  the  pirates  from  the  island. 

3.  Other  Verbs  of  separation  usually  take  the  Ablative  with  a  Prep* 
osition,  particularly  compounds  of  dis-  and  se- ;  as,  — 

dissentio  a  te,  /  dissent  from  you  ; 

secernantur  a  nobis,  let  them  be  separated  from  us. 

4.  The  Preposition  is  freely  omitted  in  poetry. 

•  # 

Ablative  of  Source. 

215.  The  Ablative  of  Source  is  used  with  the  participles 
natus  and  ortus  (in  poetry  also  with  editus,  satus,  and  some 
others),  to  designate  parentage  or  station  ;  as,  — • 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter  ; 

summo  loco  natus,  high-born  (lit.  born  from  a  very  high  place')  ; 
nobill  genere  ortus,  born  of  a  noble  family. 

1.  Pronouns  regularly  (nouns  rarely)  take  ex;  as, 

ex  me  natus,  sprung  frotn  me. 

2.  To  denote  remoter  descent,  ortus  ab,  or  oriundus  (with  or 
without  ab),  is  used  ;  as,  — 

ab  Ulixe  oriundus,  descended  frotn  Ulysses. 

Ablative  of  Agent. 

216.  The  Ablative  accompanied  by  a  (ab)  is  used  with 
passive  verbs  to  denote  the  personal  agent ;  as,  — 

a  Caesare  accusatus  est,  he  was  arraigned  by  Caesar. 

1.  Collective  nouns  referring  to  persons,  and  abstract  nouns  when 
personified,  may  be  construed  as  the  personal  agent.  Thus  :  — 

hostes  a  fortuna  deserebantur,  the  enemy  were  deserted  by  Forttme ; 
5.  multitudine  hostium  montes  tenebantur,  the  mountains  were  held 
by  a  multitude  of  the  enemy. 

2.  Names  of  animals  sometimes  admit  the  same  construction.  Thus:  — 

a  canibus  laniatus  est,  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs. 


144 


Syntax . 


Ablative  of  Comparison. 

217.  i.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  with  Comparatives 
in  the  sense  of  than;  as,  — 
melle  dulcior,  sweeter  than  honey ; 

patria  mihi  vita  carior  est,  my  country  is  dearer  to  me  than  life. 

2.  This  construction,  as  a  rule,  occurs  only  as  a  substitute  for  quam 
(than)  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative.  In  other  cases  quam  must 
be  used ;  as,  — 

tul  studiosior  sum  quam  illius,  I  am  fonder  of  you  than  of  him. 

Studiosior  illo  would  have  meant,  lam  fonder  of  you  than  he  is. 

3.  Plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius  are  often  employed  as  the  equiv¬ 
alents  of  plus  quam,  minus  quam,  etc.  Thus  :  — 

amplius  vlgintl  urbes  incenduntur,  more  than  twenty  cities  are 
fired ; 

minus  qulnque  mllia  processit,  he  advanced  less  than  five  miles. 

4.  Note  the  use  of  opinidne  with  Comparatives;  as, — 

opinione  celerius  venit,  he  comes  more  quickly  than  expected  (lit.  than  opinion). 


INSTRUMENTAL  USES  OF  THE  ABLATIVE. 
Ablative  of  Means. 

218.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  means  or  instru¬ 
ment  ;  as,  — 

Alexander  sagitta  vulneratus  est,  Alexander  was  wounded  by  an 
arrow. 

There  are  the  following  special  varieties  of  this  Ablative :  — 

1.  Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds  take 
the  Ablative  ;  as,  — 

dlvitils  utitur,  he  uses  his  wealth  (lit.  he  benefits  himself  by  his 
wealth)  ; 

vita  fruitur,  he  enjoys  life  (lit.  he  enjoys  himself  by  life)  ; 
munere  fungor,  /  perform  my  duty  (lit.  I  busy  myself  with  duty)  ; 
carne  vescuntur,  they  eat  flesh  (lit.  feed  themselves  by  means  of)  ; 
urbe  potltus  est,  he  got  possession  of  the  city  (lit.  made  himself  power - 
ful  by  the  city) . 

a.  Potior  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive.  See  §  212,  2. 


The  Ablative . 


145 


2.  With  opus  est  (rarely  usus  est),  there  is  need ;  as,  — 

duce  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  a  leader. 

a.  A  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  often  stands  as  subject  with 
opus  as  predicate.  Thus  :  — 

hoc  mihi  opus  est,  this  is  necessary  for  me. 

b.  An  ordinary  substantive  rarely  stands  as  subject.  Thus  dux 
nobis  opus  est  is  a  rare  form  of  expression. 

e.  Note  the  occasional  use  of  a  perfect  passive  participle  with  opus 
est ;  as,  — 

opus  est  properato,  there  is  need  of  haste. 

3.  With  nltor,  innlxus,  and  fretus  ;  as, — 

nltitur  hasta,  he  rests  071  a  spear  (lit.  supports  himself  by  a  spear ); 
fretus  virtute,  relying  on  virtue  (lit.  supported  by  virtue). 

4.  With  continerl,  consistere,  constare,  consist  of ;  as,  — 

nervls  et  ossibus  continentur,  they  consist  of  sinews  and  bones  (lit. 

they  are  held  together  by  sinews  and  bones) ; 
mortal!  consistit  corpore  mundus,  the  world  consists  of  mortal  sub¬ 
stance  (lit.  holds  together  by  means  of  \  etc.). 

6.  In  expressions  of  the  following  type  :  — 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  can  yoti  do  with  this  man  ? 
quid  mea  Tulliola  flet,  what  will  become  of  my  dear  Tullia  ?  (lit.  what 
will  be  done  with  my  dear  Tullia  ?) 

7.  In  the  following  special  phrases  at  variance  with  the  ordinary 
English  idiom :  — 

proelio  contendere,  vincere,  to  contend ,  conquer  in  battle ; 
proelio  lacessere,  to  provoke  to  battle ; 
curru  vehl,  to  ride  in  a  chariot ; 
pedibus  Ire,  to  go  on  foot ; 

castrls  se  tenere,  to  keep  in  ca7np. 

8.  With  Verbs  of  filling  and  Adjectives  of  plenty ;  as, — 
fossas  virgultls  complerunt,  they  filled  the  trenches  with  brush. 

a.  But  plenus  more  commonly  takes  the  Genitive.  See  §  204, 1. 

9.  Under  ‘Means’  belongs  also  the  Ablative  of  the  Way  by 
which  ;  as,  — 

vlnum  Tiberl  devectum,  wine  brought  down  (by)  the  Tiber. 


146 


\ 


Syntax. 


10.  The  means  may  be  a  person  as  well  as  a  thing.  Thus :  — 

mllitibus  a  lacii  Lemanno  ad  montem  Juram  murum  perducit,  with 
{i.e.  by  means  of)  his  troops  he  runs  await  from  Lake  Geneva  to  Mt.  Jura. 

Ablative  of  Cause. 

219.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  cause ;  as, — 

multa  gloriae  cupiditate  fecit,  he  did  tnany  things  on  account  of  his 
love  of  glory. 

1.  So  especially  with  verbs  denoting  mental  states ;  as,  delector, 
gaudeo,  laetor,  glorior,  fldo,  confldo.  Also  with  contentus ; 
as,  — 

fortuna  amici  gauded,  /  rejoice  at  the  fortune  of  my  friend  (i.e.  on 
account  of  it)  { 

victoria  sua  gloriantur,  they  exidt  over  their  victory ; 
natura  loci  confldebant,  they  trusted  in  the  character  of  their  country 
(lit.  were  confident  on  account  of  the  character). 

a.  fidd  and  confldo  always  take  the  Dative  of  the  person  (§  187.  II.  a)  ; 
sometimes  the  Dative  of  the  thing. 

2.  As  Ablatives  of  Cause  are  to  be  reckoned  also  such  Ablatives  as 
jussu,  by  order  of  injussu,  without  the  order ,  rogatu,  etc. 

Ablative  of  Manner. 

220.  The  Ablative  with  cum  is  used  to  denote  manner ; 
as,  — 

cum  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  dignity. 

1.  The  preposition  may  be  omitted  when  the  Ablative  is  modified 
by  an  adjective  ;  as,  — 

magna  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  great  dignity. 

2.  The  preposition  is  regularly  omitted  in  the  expressions  jure, 
injuria,  joco,  vl,  fraude,  voluntate,  furto,  silentio. 

3.  A  special  variety  of  the  Ablative  of  Manner  denotes  that  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  which  or  in  p:irsuance  of  which  anything  is  or  is  done. 
It  is  generally  used  without  a  preposition.  Thus  :  — 

mea  sententia,  according  to  my  opinion  ; 
suls  moribus,  in  accordance  with  their  custom  ; 
sua  sponte,  voluntarily ,  of  his  (their)  own  accord ; 
ea  condicione.  on  these  terms. 


The  Ablative. 


147 


Ablative  of  Attendant  Circumstance. 

221.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  to  denote  an  attendant 
circumstance  of  an  action  or  an  event ;  as,  — 

bonis  auspicils,  lender  good  auspices  ; 

nulla  est  altercatio  clamoribus  umquam  habita  majoribus,  no 

debate  was  ever  held  under  circumstances  of  greater  applause ; 

exstinguitur  ingentl  luctu  provinciae,  he  dies  under  circumstances 
of  great  grief  on  the  part  of  the  province ; 
longo  intervallo  sequitur,  he  follows  at  a  great  distance. 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

222.  The  Ablative  with  cum  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion 
to  denote  accompaniment ;  as, — 

cum  comitibus  profectus  est,  he  set  out  with  his  attendants ; 
cum  febrl  domum  rediit,  he  returned  home  with  a  fever . 

1.  In  military  expressions  the  Ablative  may  stand  without  cum 
when  modified  by  any  adjective  except  a  numeral ;  as,  — 

omnibus  copils,  ingentl  exercitu,  magna  manu  ;  but  usually  cum 
exercitu,  cum  duabus  legiSnibus. 

Ablative  of  Association. 

222  A.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  with  verbs  of  joining, 
mixing ,  clinging ,  exchanging ;  also  with  assuesco,  consuesco, 
assuefacio,  and  some  others  to  denote  association  ;  as, — 

improbitas  scelere  juncta,  badness  joined  with  crime ; 
aer  calore  admixtus,  air  mixed  with  heat ; 
assuetus  labore,  accustomed  to  (lit.  familiarized  with )  toil ; 
pacem  bello  permutant,  they  change  peace  for  (lit.  with )  war. 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference. 

223.  The  Ablative  is  used  with  comparatives  and  words 
involving  comparison  (as  post,  ante,  Infra,  supra)  to  denote 

the  degree  of  difference  ;  as,  — 

dlmidio  minor,  s?naller  by  a  half ; 

tribus  pedibus  altior,  three  feet  higher ; 
paulo  post,  a  little  afterwards ; 

quo  plura  habemus,  e5  cupimus  ampliora,  the  more  we  have ,  the 
more  we  want. 


148 


Syntax. 


Ablative  of  Quality. 

224.  The  Ablative,  modified  by  an  adjective,  is  used  to 
denote  quality ;  as,  — 

puella  eximia  forma,  a  girl  of  exceptional  beauty ; 
vir  singular!  industria,  a  man  of  singular  industry. 

1 .  The  Ablative  of  Quality  may  also  be  used  predicatively ;  as,  — 
est  magna  prudentia,  he  is  (a  man)  of  great  wisdom ; 
bono  animo  sunt,  they  are  of  good  courage. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Adjective  we  sometimes  find  a  limiting  Genitive ;  as,  — 
sunt  specie  et  colore  tauri,  they  are  of  the  appearance  and  color  of  a  bull. 

3.  In  poetry  the  Ablative  of  Quality  sometimes  denotes  material ;  as,  — 

scopulis  pendentibus  antrum,  a  cave  of  arching  rocks. 

Ablative  of  Price. 

225.  With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling ,  price  is  desig¬ 
nated  by  the  Ablative ;  as,  — 

servum  qulnque  minis  emit,  he  bought  the  slave  for  five  minae. 

1.  The  Ablatives  magno,  plurimo,  parvo,  minimo  (by  omission 
of  pretio)  are  used  to  denote  indefi?iite  price ;  as,  — 

aedes  magno  vendidit,  he  sold  the  house  for  a  high  price. 

2.  For  the  Genitive  of  Indefinite  Price,  see  §  203.  4. 

Ablative  of  Specification. 

226.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  is  used  to  denote 
that  in  respect  to  which  something  is  or  is  done  ;  as,  — 

Helveti!  omnibus  Gallis  virtute  praestabant,  the  Helvetians  sur¬ 
passed  all  the  Gaids  in  valor ; 
pede  claudus,  lame  in  his  foot. 

1.  Note  the  phrases  :  — 

major  natu,  older  (lit.  greater  as  to  age)  ; 
minor  natu,  younger. 

2.  Here  belongs  the  use  of  the  Ablative  with  dignus,  worthy , 
indignus,  unworthy ,  and  dignor,  deem  worthy  of;  as, — 

dignl  honore,  worthy  of  honor  (i.e.  in  point  of  honor) ; 

fide  indignl,  'unworthy  of  confidence. 

me  dignor  honore,  /  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor. 


The  Ablative . 


149 


Ablative  Absolute. 

227.  The  Ablative  Absolute  is  grammatically  inde¬ 
pendent  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  In  its  commonest 
form  it  consists  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  limited  by  a 
participle ;  as,  — 

urbe  capta,  Aeneas  fugit,  when  the  city  had  been  captured ,  Aeneas 
fled  (lit.  the  city  having  been  captured') . 

1.  Instead  of  a  participle  we  often  find  an  adjective  or  noun;  as, — 

vivo  Caesare  res  publica  salva  erat,  while  Caesar  was  alive  the 
state  was  safe  (lit.  Caesar  being  alive)  ; 

Tarquinio  rege,  Pythagoras  in  Italiam  venit,  in  the  reign  of  Tar- 
quin  Pythagoras  came  into  Italy  (lit.  Tar  quin  being  king) . 

Cn.  Fompejo,  M.  Crasso  consulibus,  in  the  considship  of  Gnaeus 
Pompey  and  Marcus  Crassus  (lit.  P.  and  C.  bemg  consids) . 

2.  The  Ablative  Absolute  is  generally  used  in  Latin  where  in 
English  we  employ  subordinate  clauses.  Thus  the  Ablative  Absolute 
may  correspond  to  a  clause  denoting  — 

a)  Time,  as  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

b)  Condition  ;  as,  — 

omnes  virtutes  jacent,  voluptate  dominante,  all  virtues 

lie  prostrate ,  if  pleasure  is  master. 

c)  Opposition  ;  as,  — 

perditis  omnibus  rebus,  virtus  se  sustentare  potest, 

though  everything  else  is  lost ,  yet  Virtue  can  maintain 
herself. 

d)  Cause  ;  as,  — 

nullo  adversante  regnum  obtinuit,  since  no  one  opposed 
him ,  he  secured  the  throjie. 

e)  Attendant  circumstance  ;  as,  — 

passls  palmls  pacem  petlverunt,  with  hands  oidstretched 
they  sued  for  peace. 

3.  An  Infinitive  or  clause  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Ablative  Absolute 
construction,  especially  in  Livy  and  later  writers  ;  as,  — 

audlto  eum  fugisse,  when  it  was  heard  that  he  had  fled. 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  stands  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  construction 
only  when  it  denotes  a  different  person  or  thing  from  any  in  the  clause 
in  which  it  stands.  Exceptions  to  this  principle  are  extremely  rare. 


ISO 


LOCATIVE  USES  OF  THE  ABLATIVE. 


Ablative  of  Place. 


Syntax. 


A .  Place  where. 


228.  The  place  where  is  regularly  denoted  by  the  Ab¬ 
lative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

in  urbe  habitat,  he  dwells  in  the  city. 

i.  But  certain  words  stand  in  the  Ablative  without  a  prepo¬ 
sition  ;  viz.  —  J 

a)  Names  of  towns,  —  except  Singulars  of  the  First  and 
Second  Declensions  (see  §  232.  1)  ;  as, — 


CarthaginI,  at  Carthage ; 
Athenls,  at  Athens ; 
Vejis,  at  Veii. 


b)  The  general  words  loco,  locTs,  parte,  also  many  words 
modified  by  totus  or  even  by  other  Adjectives ;  as, — 


hoc  loco,  at  this  place ; 
totls  castrls,  in  the  whole  camp. 


c )  The  special  words  :  forls,  out  of  doors ;  ruri,  in  the  country ; 
terra  marlque,  on  land  and  sea. 

d)  The  poets  freely  omit  the  preposition  with  any  word  denot¬ 
ing  place ;  as,  — 

stant  litore  puppes,  the  sterns  rest  on  the  beach . 


B.  Place  from  which.1 


229.  Place  from  which  is  regularly  denoted  by  the 
A  blative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 


ab  Italia  profectus  est,  he  set  out  from  Italy ; 
ex  urbe  rediit,  he  returned  from  the  city. 


1.  But  certain  words  stand  in  the  Ablative  without  a  prepo¬ 
sition  ;  viz.  — 

a)  Names  of  towns  and  small  islands ;  as,  — 

Roma  profectus  est,  he  set  out  frotn  Rome ; 

Rhodo  revertit,  he  returned  frotn  Rhodes. 

1  Place  from  which,  though  strictly  a  Genuine  Ablative  use,  is  treated  here  for 
sake  of  convenience. 


The  Ablative. 


151 


b)  domo,  from  home ;  rure,  from  the  country. 

c )  Freely  in  poetry  ;  as,  — 

Italia  decessit,  he  withdrew  from  Italy. 

2.  With  names  of  towns,  ab  is  used  to  mean  from  the  vicinity  of 
or  to  denote  the  point  whence  distance  is  measured ;  as,  — 

a  Gergovia  discessit,  he  withdrew  from  the  vicinity  of  Gergovia. 

a  Roma  X  mllia  aberat,  he  was  ten  miles  distant  from  Rome. 

Urbe  and  oppido,  when  standing  in  apposition  with  a  town  name, 
are  accompanied  by  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

•v 

Curibus  ex  oppido  Sabinorum,  from  Cures,  a  town  of  the  Sabines. 

Ablative  of  Time. 

A.  Time  at  which. 

230.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  time  at 
which  ;  as,  — 

quart!  hora  mortuus  est,  he  died  at  the  fourth  hour ; 
anno  septuagesimo  consul  creatus,  elected  consul  in  his  seventieth 
year. 

1.  Any  word  denoting  a  period  of  time  may  stand  in  this  con¬ 
struction,  particularly  annus,  vSr,  aest!s,  hiems,  dies,  nox,  hora, 
comitia  ( Election  Day),  ludl  ( the  Games),  etc. 

2.  Words  not  denoting  time  require  the  preposition  in,  unless 
accompanied  by  a  modifier.  Thus:  — 

in  pace,  in  peace;  in  bello,  in  war; 

but  secundo  bello  Punico,  in  the  second  Punic  War. 

3.  Expressions  like  in  eo  tempore,  in  summa  senectute,  take  the 
preposition  because  they  denote  situation  rather  than  time. 

B.  Tune  within  which. 

231.  Time  withhi  which  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
either  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

1 

Stella  SaturnI  trlginta  annls  cursum  conficit,  the  planet  Saturn 
completes  its  orbit  within  thirty  years ; 
ter  in  anno,  thrice  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

1.  Occasionally  the  Ablative  denotes  duration  of  time  ;  as, — 
bienniS  prosperas  res  habuit,/cr  two  years  he  had  a  prosperous  administration. 


152 


Syntax . 


THE  LOCATIVE. 

232.  The  Locative  case  occurs  chiefly  in  the  following 
words :  — 

1.  Regularly  in  the  Singular  of  names  of  towns  and  small  islands 
of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  to  denote  the  place  in  which  ;  as,  — 

Romae,  at  Rome ;  CorinthI,  at  Corinth ; 

RhodI,  at  Rhodes. 

2.  In  the  following  special  forms  :  — 

domi,  at  home ;  hum!,  on  the  ground ; 

belli,  in  war ;  mllitiae,  in  war ; 

vesperl,  at  evening ;  herl,  yesterday. 

3.  Note  the  phrase  pendere  animl,  lit.  to  be  in  suspense  in  one's 
mind. 

4.  For  urbs  and  oppidum  in  apposition  with  a  Locative,  see  §  169.  4. 


■  — ♦<>• 

Chapter  III.  —  Syntax  of  Adjectives . 

233.  1.  The  word  with  which  an  Adjective  agrees  is 
called  its  Subject. 

2.  Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives.  An  Attributive 
Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  directly;  as, — 

vir  sapiens,  a  wise  man. 

A  Predicate  Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  through 
the  medium  of  a  verb  (usually  esse) ;  as,  — 

vir  est  sapiens,  the  man  is  wise ; 

vir  videbatur  sapiens,  the  ?nan  seemed  wise  ; 

vir  judicatus  est  sapiens,  the  7nati  was  judged  wise  ; 

hunc  virum  sapientem  judicavimus,  we  adjudged  this  man  wise. 

3.  Participles  and  Adjective  Pronouns  have  the  construction  of 
Adjectives. 


Agreement  of  Adjectives. 


153 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

234.  Agreement  with  One  Noun.  When  an  Adjective 
limits  one  noun  it  agrees  with  it  in  Gender,  Number,  and 
Case. 

1.  Two  Adjectives  in  the  Singular  may  limit  a  noun  in  the  Plural; 
as,  prlma  et  vlcesima  legiones,  the  first  and  twentieth  legions. 

2.  A  Predicate  Adjective  may  stand  in  the  Neuter  when  its  Subject 
is  Masculine  or  Feminine  and  denotes  a  thing;  as, — 

mors  est  miserum,  death  is  a  wretched  thing. 

235.  Agreement  with  Two  or  More  Nouns. 

\ 

A.  AGREEMENT  AS  TO  NUMBER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  number  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

pater  tuus  et  mater,  your  father  and  mother ; 

eadem  alacritas  et  studium,  the  same  eagerness  and  zeal. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is  Predicative,  it  is  regularly 
Plural ;  as,  — 

pax  et  concordia  sunt  pulchrae,  peace  and  concord  are  glorious. 

B.  AGREEMENT  AS  TO  GENDER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  gender  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

res  operae  multae  ac  laboris,  a  matter  of  much  effort  and  labor. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is  Predicative  — 

a)  If  the  nouns  are  of  the  same  gender,  the  Adjective  agrees 
with  them  in  gender;  as, — 

pater  et  filius  captl  sunt,  father  and  son  were  captured. 

Yet  with  feminine  abstract  nouns,  the  Adjective  is  more  fre¬ 
quently  Neuter;  as, — 

stultitia  et  timiditas  fugienda  sunt,  folly  and  cowardice 
must  be  shunned. 


154 


Syntax. 


*  b)  If  the  nouns  are  of  different  gender ;  then,  — 

a)  In  case  they  denote  persons,  the  Adjective  is  Mascu¬ 
line  ;  as,  — 

pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  the  father  and  mother  have 

died. 

(3)  In  case  they  denote  things,  the  Adjective  is  Neu¬ 
ter  ;  as,  — 

honorgs  et  victoriae  fortulta  sunt,  honors  and  victories 
are  accidental. 

y)  In  case  they  include  both  persons  and  things,  the 
Adjective  is,  — 

aa)  Sometimes  Masculine  ;  as,  — 

domus,  uxor,  liber!  invent!  sunt,  home ,  wife,  and  children 

are  secured. 

(3/3)  Sometimes  Neuter ;  as, — 

parentes,  llberos,  domos  vllia  habere,  to  hold  parents , 

children ,  houses ,  cheap. 

yy)  Sometimes  it  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

popul!  provinciaeque  llberatae  sunt,  nations  and  prov¬ 
inces  were  liberated. 

c)  Construction  according  to  Sense.  Sometimes  an  Ad¬ 
jective  does  not  agree  with  a  noun  according  to  strict  gram¬ 
matical  form,  but  according  to  sense ;  as,  — 

pars  bestils  object!  sunt,  part  (of  the  men)  were  thrown 
to  beasts. 

ADJECTIVES  USED  SUBSTANTIVELY. 

236.  I.  Plural  Adjectives  used  Substantively. 
Adjectives  are  quite  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the 
Plural.  The  Masculine  denotes  persons;  the  Neuter 
denotes  things ;  as, — 

doctl,  scholars  ;  parva,  small  things ; 

mail,  the  wicked ;  magna,  great  things ; 

Graeci,  the  Greeks  ;  utilia,  useful  things  ; 

nostrl,  our  men. 


Adjectives  used  Substantively . 


155 


2.  Neuter  Plural  Adjectives  thus  used  are  confined  mainly  to  the 
Nominative  and  Accusative  cases.  Such  forms  as  magnorum,  om¬ 
nium  ;  magnis,  omnibus,  would  ordinarily  lead  to  ambiguity ;  yet 
where  there  is  no  ambiguity,  they  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parva  componere  magnis,  to  compare  small  things  with  great. 

Otherwise  the  Latin  says :  magnarum  rerum,  magnis  rebus,  etc. 

237.  Singular  Adjectives  used  Substantively.  Ad¬ 
jectives  are  less  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the  Sin¬ 
gular  than  in  the  Plural. 

I.  Masculine  Adjectives  occur  only  occasionally  in  this  use;  as, — 
probus  invidet  neminl,  the  honest  man  envies  nobody. 

a .  Usually  vir,  homo,  or  some  similar  word  is  employed  ;  as,  — 


homo  doctus,  a  scholar  ; 
vir  Romanus,  a  Ronlan. 


\ 


b.  But  when  limited  by  a  pronoun  any  adjective  may  be  so 
used ;  as,  — 

*  hie  doctus,  this  scholar ; 

doctus  quldam,  a  certain  scholar 

2.  Neuters  are  likewise  infrequent ;  as, — 


verum,  truth  ; 
justum,  justice ; 
hones  turn,  ^virtue. 


a.  This  substantive  use  of  Neuter  Singulars  is  commonest  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole,  and  after  Prepositions;  as, — 


aliquid  veri,  something  true  ; 
nihil  novi,  nothing  new ; 
in  medio,  in  the  midst. 


238.  From  Adjectives  which,  like  the  above,  occasionally  admit  the 
substantive  use,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  certain  others  which 
have  become  nouns  ;  as,  — 


adversarius,  opponent ; 
aequalis,  contetnporary ; 
amicus,  friend ; 
cognatus,  kinsman ; 


hlberna,  winter  quarters  ; 
propinquus,  relative ; 
socius,  partner ; 
sodalis,  comrade ; 


vlclnus,  neighbor ;  etc. 


156 


Syntax. 


ADJECTIVES  WITH  THE  FORCE  OF  ADVERBS. 

239.  The  Latin  often  uses  an  Adjective  where  the  Eng¬ 
lish  idiom  employs  an  Adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase  ;  as,  — * 

senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers ; 

fuit  assiduus  mecum,  he  was  constantly  with  me. 

COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES. 

240.  I.  The  Comparative  often  corresponds  to  the  English  Positive 
with  i  rather ,’  i  somewhat ,’  ‘  too 1 ;  as,  — 

senectus  est  loquacior,  old  age  is  rather  talkative. 

2.  So  the  Superlative  often  corresponds  to  the  Positive  with 
4  very 1 ;  as,  — 

vir  fortissimus,  a  very  brave  man. 

3.  Strengthening  Words.  Vel  and  quam  are  often  used  with 
the  Superlative  as  strengthening  particles,  vel  with  the  force  of  ‘  very 
and  quam  with  the  force  of 4  as  possible 1 ;  as,  — 

vel  maximus,  the  very  greatest ;  , 

quam  maximae  copiae,  as  great  forces  as  possible. 

4.  Phrases  of  the  type  ‘  more  rich,  than  brave '  regularly  take  the  Comparative 
in  both  members  ;  as, — 

exercitus  erat  ditior  quam  fortior,  the  army  was  more  rich  than  brave. 

\  OTHER  PECULIARITIES. 

241.  1.  Certain  Adjectives  may  be  used  to  denote  a  part  of  an  object, 
chiefly  primus,  extremus,  summus,  medius,  Infimus,  Imus ;  as, — 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  mountain  ; 

extrema  hieme,  in  the  last  part  of  the  whiter. 

2.  Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  and  postremus  are  frequently  equiva¬ 
lent  to  a  relative  clause  ;  as,  — 

primus  earn  vldl,  /  was  the  first  who  saw  her  ; 

ultimus  decessit,  he  was  the  last  who  withdrew. 

3.  When  multus  and  another  adjective  both  limit  the  same  noun, 
et  is  generally  used ;  as,  — 

multae  et  magnae  cogitatiSnes,  many  (and)  great  thoughts. 


Personal  Pronouns.  —  Possessive  Pronouns.  157 


Chapter  IV.  —  Syntax  of  Pronouns. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

242.  1.  The  Personal  Pronouns  as  subjects  of  verbs 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  expressed  except  for  the  purpose  of 
emphasis ,  contrast ,  or  clearness.  Thus  ordinarily  :  — 

video,  T see  1  amat,  he  loves. 

But  ego  te  video,  et  tu  me  vides,  I  see  you,  and  you  see  me. 

2.  The  Genitives  mel,  tul,  nostri,  vestrl  are  used  only  as  Objective 
Genitives ;  nostrum  and  vestrum  as  Genitives  of  the  Whole.  Thus :  — 

mem  or  tul,  mindful  of  you  ; 

deslderium  vestri,  longing  for  you  ; 
nemo  vestrum,  no  one  of  you. 

a.  But  nostrum  and  vestrum  are  regularly  used  in  place  of  the  Pos¬ 
sessive  in  the  phrases  omnium  nostrum,  omnium  vestrum. 

3.  The  First  Plural  is  often  used  for  the  First  Singular  of  Pronouns 
and  Verbs.  Compare  the  Eng.  editorial  ‘we.’ 

4.  When  two  Verbs  govern  the  same  object,  the  Latin  does  not 
use  a  pronoun  with  the  second,  as  is  the  rule  in  English.  Thus :  — 

virtus  amlcitias  conciliat  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  friend • 
ships  and  maintains  the7n  (not  eas  conservat). 

POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

243.  1.  The  Possessive  Pronouns,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
employed  except  for  the  purpose  of  clearness.  Thus  :  — 

patrem  am 5,  I  love  my  father ; 

de  fllil  morte  flebas ,  you  wept  for  the  death  of  your  son. 

But  — 

de  morte  fllii  mel  flebas,  ^7/  wept  for  the  death  of  my  son. 

a .  When  expressed  merely  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  pos¬ 
sessive  usually  stands  after  its  noun ;  but  in  order  to  indi¬ 
cate  emphasis  or  contrast,  it  precedes  ;  as,  — 

sua  manu  llberos  occldit,  with  his  own  hand  he  slew  his 

children  ; 

mea  quidem  sententia,  in  my  opinion  at  least. 


158  Syntax. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Possessive  Pronouns  are  used  with  the  force  oi 
an  Objective  Genitive ;  as,  — 

metus  vester  ,fear  of  you; 
deslderium  tuum,  longing  for  you. 

3.  For  special  emphasis,  the  Latin  employs  ipsTus  or  ipsorum,  in 
apposition  with  the  Genitive  idea  implied  in  the  Possessive;  as,— 

mea  ipslus  opera,  by  ?ny  own  help ; 
k  nostra  ipsorum  opera,  by  our  own  help ; 

a.  So  sometimes  other  Genitives ;  as,— 

mea  unlus  opera,  by  the  assistance  of  me  alone. 


REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 

244.  1.  The  Reflexive  Pronoun  se  and  the  Possessive 
Reflexive  suus  have  a  double  use  :  — 

1.  They  may  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  clause  (either  principal  or 
subordinate)  in  which  they  stand,  —  ‘  Direct  Reflexives  ’ ;  as,  — 

se  amant,  they  love  themselves ; 

suos  amicos  adjuvat,  he  helps  his  own  friends  ; 

eum  oravi,  ut  se  servaret,  /  besought  him  to  save  himself 

II.  They  may  stand  in  a  subordinate  clause  and  refer  to  the  subject 
of  the  principal  clause,  — i  Indirect  Reflexives  ’ ;  as,  — 

me  dravit  ut  se  defenderem,  he  besought  me  to  defend  him  (lit.  that 

I  defend  himself )  ,* 

me  oraverunt,  ut  fortunarum  suarum  defensionem  susciperem, 

they  besought  me  to  undertake  the  defense  of  their  fortunes. 

a.  The  indirect  Reflexive  is  mainly  restricted  to  those  clauses 
which  express  the  thought,  not  of  the  author,  but  of  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  principal  clause. 

2.  The  Genitive  sui  is  regularly  employed,  like  mel  and  tul,  as  an 
Objective  Genitive,  eg.  oblTtus  sui,  forgetful  of  himself ;  but  it  occa¬ 
sionally  occurs  —  particularly  in  post- Augustan  writers —  in  place  of  the 
Possessive  suus  ;  as,  fruitur  fama  sui,  he  enjoys  his  own  fa?ne. 

3.  Se  and  suus  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sense,  one's  self  one's 
own ,  where  the  reference  is  not  to  any  particular  person ;  as,  — 

se  amare,  to  love  one's  self ; 

suum  genium  propitiare,  to  propitiate  one's  own  genius. 


Reciprocal  Pronouns. — Demonstrative  Pronouns.  159 


4.  Suus  sometimes  occurs  in  the  meaning  his  own ,  their  own ,  etc., 
referring  not  to  the  subject  but  to  an  oblique  case ;  as,  — 

Hannibalem  sul  elves  e  clvitate  ejecerunt,  his  own  fellow-citizens 
drove  out  Hannibal. 

a.  This  usage  is  particularly  frequent  in  combination  with 
quisque ;  as,  — 

suus  quemque  error  vexat,  his  own  error  troubles  each. 

5.  The  Reflexives  for  the  first  and  second  persons  are  supplied  by 
the  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tu  (§  85)  ;  as,  — 

vos  defenditis,  you  defend  yourselves. 


RECIPROCAL  PRONOUNS. 

245.  1.  The  Latin  has  no  special  reciprocal  pronoun  (*  each  other  ’)> 
but  expresses  the  reciprocal  notion  by  the  phrases :  inter  nos,  inter 
vos,  inter  se ;  as,  — 

Belgae  obsides  inter  se  dederunt,  the  Belgae  gave  each  other  host¬ 
ages  (lit.  among  themselves}  ; 
amamus  inter  nos,  we  love  each  other ; 

Gall!  inter  se  cohortatl  sunt,  the  Gaids  exhorted  each  other . 

a.  Note  that  the  Object  is  not  expressed  in  sentences  of  this  type. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

HIc,  Ille,  Iste. 

246.  1.  Where  hie  and  ille  are  used  in  contrast,  hie  usually  refers 
to  the  latter  of  two  objects,  and  ille  to  the  former. 

2.  HIc  and  ille  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  1  the  following'1 ;  as,  — 

Themistocles  his  verbis  epistulam  mlsit,  Themistocles  sent  a  letter 
( couched )  in  the  following  words ; 

illud  intellego,  omnium  ora  in  me  conversa  esse,  I  understand 
this ,  that  the  faces  of  all  are  turned  toward  me. 

3.  Ille  often  means  the  famous  ;  as,  Solon  ille,  the  famous  Sown. 

4.  Iste  frequently  involves  contempt;  as,  iste  homo,  that  fellow'. 

5.  The  above  pronouns,  along  with  is,  are  usually  attracted  to  the 
gender  of  a  predicate  noun  ;  as,  hie  est  honor,  meminisse  officiuir 
suum,  this  is  an  honor ,  to  be  mindful  of  one's  duty. 


i6o 


Syntax, 


Is. 

247.  I.  Is  often  serves  as  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  qul. 
Thus :  — 

Maximum,  eum  qul  Tarentum  recepit,  dilexi,  I  loved  Maximus ,  the 

7?ian  who  retook  Tarentum. 

a.  Closely  akin  to  this  usage  is  is  in  the  sense  of  such  (=  talis)  ; 
as,  — 

non  sum  is  qul  terrear,  I  ai?i  not  such  a  person  as  to  be 

frightened. 

b.  Note  the  phrase  id  quod,  where  id  stands  in  apposition  with 
an  entire  clause  ;  as,  — 

non  suspicabatur  (id  quod  nunc  sentiet)  satis  multos 
testes  nobis  reliquos  esse,  he  did  not  suspect  (a 
thing  which  he  will  now  perceive)  that  we  had  wit - 
nesses  enough  left. 

Yet  quod  alone,  without  preceding  id,  sometimes  occurs  in 
this  use. 

2.  Is  also  in  all  cases  serves  as  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  i he'  1  she,'  i it ,'  i they ,'  ‘ them.' 

3.  When  the  English  uses  i that  of'  ‘  those  of'  to  avoid  repetition  of 
the  noun,  the  Latin  omits  the  pronoun  ;  as,  — 

in  exercitu  Sullae  et  postea  in  CrassI  fuerat,  he  had  been  in  the 

army  of  Sulla  and  afterward  in  that  of  Crassus ; 

nullae  me  fabulae  delectant  nisi  Plauti,  no  plays  delight  me  except 
those  of  Plautus. 

4.  Note  the  phrases  et  is,  et  ea,  etc.,  in  the  sense  :  andthattoo ;  as, — 
vincula,  et  ea  sempiterna,  imprisonment,  and  that  too  permanently. 

Idem. 

248.  1.  Idem  in  apposition  with  the  subject  or  object  often  has  the 
force  of  also,  likewise ;  as,  — 

quod  idem  mihi  contigit,  which  likewise  happened  to  me  (lit.  which , 
the  sa?7ie  thing)  ; 

bonus  vir,  quem  eundem  sapientem  appellamus,  a  good  man , 

who7>i  we  call  also  wise. 

2.  For  Idem  atque  (ac),  the  sa77ie  as,  see  §  341.  1.  c. 


Demonstrative  Pj'onouns.  —  Relative  Pronouns .  161 


Ipse. 

249.  i .  Ipse,  literally  self. \  acquires  its  special  force  from  the  con¬ 
text  ;  as,  — 

eo  ipso  die,  on  that  very  day ; 
ad  ipsam  rlpam,  close  to  the  bank  ; 
ipso  terrore,  by  mere  fright ; 

valvae  se  ipsae  aperuerunt,  the  doors  opened  of  their  own  accord ; 
ipse  aderat,  he  was  present  in  person. 

2.  The  reflexive  pronouns  are  often  emphasized  by  the  addition  of 
ipse,  but  ipse  in  such  cases,  instead  of  standing  in  apposition  with  the 
reflexive,  more  commonly  agrees  with  the  subject ;  as,  — 

secum  ipsl  loquuntur,  they  talk  with  themselves ; 

se  ipse  continere  non  potest,  he  cannot  contain  himself. 

3.  Ipse  is  also  used  as  an  Indirect  Reflexive  for  the  purpose  of 
marking  a  contrast  or  avoidmg  an  ambiguity  ;  as,  — 

Persae  pertimuerunt  ne  Alcibiades  ab  ipsis  desclsceret  et  cum 
suls  in  gratiam  redlret,  the  Persians  feared  that  Alcibiades 
would  break  with  them  and  become  reconciled  with  his  countrymen. 
ea  molestissime  ferre  debent  homines  quae  ipsorum  culpa  con- 
tracta  sunt,  men  ought  to  chafe  most  over  those  things  which  have 
been  brought  about  by  their  own  fault  (as  opposed  to  the  fault  of 
others). 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

250.  Agreement.  1.  The  Relative  Pronoun  agrees  with 
its  antecedent  in  Gender,  Number,  and  Person,  but  its  case 
is  determined  by  its  construction  in  the  clause  in  which 
it  stands  ;  as,  — 

mulier  quam  videbamus,  the  woman  whom  we  saw  ; 
bona  quibus  fruimur,  the  blessings  which  we  enjoy. 

2.  Where  the  antecedent  is  compound,  the  same  principles  for 
number  and  gender  prevail  as  in  case  of  predicate  adjectives  under 
similar  conditions  (see  §  235.  B.  2).  Thus:  — 

pater  et  filius,  qul  capti  sunt,  the  father  and  son  who  were  captured; 

stultitia  et  timiditas  quae  fugienda  sunt  .folly  atid  cowardice  which 
must  be  shunned; 

honores  et  victoriae  quae  sunt  fortulta,  honors  a?id  victories  which 
are  accidental. 


Syntax. 


162 

3.  The  Relative  regularly  agrees  with  a  predicate  noun  (either 
Nominative  or  Accusative)  instead  of  its  antecedent;  as, — 

career,  quae  lautumiae  vocantur,  the  prison ,  which  is  called  Lau- 

tumiae ; 

Celtae,  quae  est  tertia  pars,  the  Celts ,  who  are  the  third  part. 

4.  Sometimes  the  Relative  takes  its  gender  and  number  from  the 
meaning  of  its  antecedent  ^  as,  — 

pars  qui  bestils  objectl  sunt,  a  part  (of  the  men)  who  were  thrown 
to  beasts. 

5.  Occasionally  the  Relative  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  its  ante¬ 
cedent;  as, — 

natus  eo  patre  quo  dlxl,  born  of  the  father  that  I  said. 

251.  Antecedent,  i.  The  antecedent  of  the  Relative  is 
sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  — 

qui  naturam  sequitur  sapiens  est,  he  who  follows  Nature  is  wise. 

2.  The  antecedent  may  be  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun  (or 
rarely  an  adjective)  ;  as,  — 

nostra  qui  remansimus  caedes,  the  slaughter  of  us' who  remained ; 
servlll  tumultu,  quos  usus  ac  discipllna  sublevarunt,  at  the  up¬ 
rising  of  the  slaves ,  who?n  experience  and  discipline  assisted 
(servlll  —  servorum). 

3.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  is  repeated  with  the  Relative;  as, — 
erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus,  there  were  two  routes ,  by  which 

(; routes ) . 

4.  Incorporation  of  Antecedent  in  Relative  Clause.  The 

antecedent  is  often  incorporated  in  the  relative  clause.  Thus:  — 

a)  When  the  relative  clause  stands  first ;  as,  — 

quam  quisque  novit  artem  in  hac  se  exerceat,  let  each 

one  practice  the  branch  which  he  knows. 

b)  When  the  antecedent  is  an  appositive ;  as, — 

non  longe  a  Tolosatium  flnibus  absunt,  quae  clvitas 
est  in  provincia,  they  are  not  far  from  the  borders  of 
the  Tolosates,  a  state  which  is  in  our  province. 

c )  When  the  logical  antecedent  is  a  superlative  ;  as,  — 
Themistocles  de  servls  suls,  quem  habuit  fidelissimum, 

mlsit,  Themistocles  sent  the  most  trusty  slave  he  had. 


Relative  Pronouns.  —  Indefinite  Pronouns.  163 

d)  In  expressions  of  the  following  type  — 

qua  es  prudentia ;  quae  tua  est  prudentia,  stich  is  your 
prudence  (lit.  of  which  prudence  you  are ;  which  is  your 
prudence) . 

0 

5.  The  Relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin  as  it  is  in  English.  Thus 
the  boy  /  saw  must  he  puer  quem  vldl. 

6.  The  Relative  is  used  freely  in  Latin,  particularly  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  where  in  English  we  employ  a  demonstrative ;  as,  — 

quo  factum  est,  by  this  it  happened] 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

quibus  rebus  cognitis,  when  these  things  became  known. 

7.  The  Relative  introducing  a  subordinate  clause  may  belong 
grammatically  to  a  clause  which  is  subordinate  to  the  one  it  intro¬ 
duces  ;  as,  — 

numquam  digne  satis  laudarl  philosophia  poterit,  cui  qul 
pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit  degere, 

philosophy  can  7iever  be  praised  enough ,  since  he  who  obeys  her 
can  pass  every  period  of  life  without  annoyance  (lit.  he  who  obeys 
which ,  etc.). 

Here  cui  introduces  the  subordinate  clause  possit  and  connects  it 
with  philosophia ;  but  cui  is  governed  by  pareat,  which  is  subordi¬ 
nate  to  possit. 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

252.  1.  Quis,  any  one ,  is  the  weakest  of  the  Indefinites,  and  stands 
usually  in  combination  with  si,  nisi,  ne,  num ;  as,  — 

si  quis  putat,  if  any  one  thinks. 

2.  Aliquis  (adj.  aliqui)  is  more  definite  than  quis,  and  corre¬ 
sponds  usually  to  the  English  some  one ,  somebody ,  some ;  as,  — 

nunc  aliquis  dicat  mihi,  now  let  sottiebody  tell  7ne ; 
utinam  modo  agatur  aliquid,  oh  that  somethmg  may  be  do7ie. 

3.  Quldam,  a  certam  07ie,  is  still  more  definite  than  aliquis  ;  as, — 
homo  quldam,  a  certam  7tia7i  (i.e.  07ie  who7)i  /  have  in  77iind). 

a.  Quidam  (with  or  without  quasi,  as  if)  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense :  a  sort  of,  kind  of;  as,  — 
quaedam  cognatio,  a  sort  of  relationship  ; 

mors  est  quasi  quaedam  migratio,  death  is  a  kind  of  transfer, 
as  it  were. 


164 


Syntax. 


4.  Quisquam,  any  07ie ,  any  one  whoever  (more  general  than  quis), 
and  its  corresponding  adjective  ullus,  any ,  occur  mostly  in  negative 
and  conditional  sentences,  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  nega¬ 
tive,  and  in  clauses  of  comparison  ;  as,  — 

justitia  numquara  nocet  cuiquam,  justice  never  harms  a?iy booty  ; 
si  quisquam,  Cato  sapiens  fuit,  if  anybody  was  ever  wise ,  Cato  was ; 
potestne  quisquam  sine  perturbatione  animl  IrascI,  ca7i  a7iybody 
be  a7igry  without  excite7)ie7it  ? 
si  ullS  modo  fieri  potest,  if  it  ca7i  be  done  in  a7iy  way  ; 
taetrior  hie  tyrannus  fuit  quam  quisquam  superiorum,  he  was  a 
viler  tyra7it  tha7i  a7iy  of  his  predecessors. 

5.  Quisque,  each  one ,  is  used  especially  under  the  following  circum¬ 
stances  :  — 

a)  In  connection  with  suus.  See  §  244.  4.  a. 

b)  In  connection  with  a  Relative  or  Interrogative  Pronoun; 
as,  — 

quod  cuique  obtigit,  id  teneat,  what  falls  to  each ,  that  let 

hi77i  hold. 

c)  In  connection  with  superlatives  ;  as,  — 
optimus  quisque,  all  the  best  (lit.  each  best  one). 

d)  With  ordinal  numerals  ;  as,  — 

qulnto  quoque  anno,  every  four  years  (lit.  each  fifth  year). 

6.  Nemo,  no  one ,  in  addition  to  its  other  uses,  stands  regularly  with 
adjectives  used  substantively;  as, — 

nemo  mortalis,  no  77iortal ; 
nemo  Romanus,  no  Ro7nan. 


PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

253.  I.  Alius  ,  another,  and  alter,  the  other ,  are  often  used  correl- 
atively  ;  as,  — - 

aliud  loquitur,  aliud  sentit,  he  says  one  thing,  he  thinks  a7iother ; 

alii  resistunt,  alii  fugiunt,  some  resist ,  others  flee ; 

alter  exercitum  perdidit,  alter  vendidit,  07ie  ruined  the  army ,  the - 

other  sold  it ; 

alterl  se  in  montem  receperunt,  alterl  ad  impedimenta  se  contu- 
lerunt,  the  one  party  retreated  to  the  mountain ,  the  others  betook 
themselves  to  the  baggage. 


Agreement  of  Verb  zvith  Subject.  165 

2.  Where  the  English  says  one  does  one  thing ,  another  another ,  the 
Latin  uses  a  more  condensed  form  of  statement ;  as,  — 

alius  aliud  amat,  one  tikes  one  thing ,  another  another ; 
aliud  alils  placet,  one  thing  pleases  some ,  another  others. 

a.  So  sometimes  with  adverbs  ;  as,  — 

alii  alio  fugdunt,  somefiee  in  one  direction ,  others  in  another. 

3.  The  Latin  also  expresses  the  notion  4  each  other  ’  by  means  of 
alius  repeated ;  as,  — 

Galll  alius  alium  cohortati  sunt,  the  Gauls  encouraged  each  other. 

4.  Ceterl  means  the  rest,  all  the  others ;  as,  — 

ceteris  praestare,  to  be  superior  to  all  the  others. 

5.  ReliquI  means  the  others  in  the  sense  of  the  rest ,  those  remain¬ 
ing, —  hence  is  the  regular  word  with  numerals;  as, — 

reliqul  sex,  the  six  others. 

6.  Nescio  quis  forms  a  compound  indefinite  pronoun  with  the 
force  of  sotne  one  or  other ;  as,  — 

causidicus  nescio  quis,  some  pettifogger  or  other ; 
mlsit  nescio  quem,  he  sent  sonie  o'tie  or  other  ; 

nescio  quo  pacto,  somehow  or  other . 


••O* 


Chapter  V.  —  Syntax  of  Verbs . 

AGREEMENT. 

With  One  Subject. 

254.  1.  Agreement  in  Number  and  Person.  A  Finite 
Verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  Number  and  Person;  as, — 
vos  videtis,  you  see  ; 

pater  fllids  instituit,  the  father  trams  his  sons. 

2.  Agreement  in  Gender.  In  the  compound  forms  of  the  verb 
the  participle  regularly  agrees  with  its  subject  in  gender ;  as,  — 

seditio  repressa  est,  the  mutiny  was  checked. 


Syntax. 


1 66 

3.  But  when  a  predicate  noun  is  of  different  gender  or  number  from 
its  subject,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  its  nearest  substantive;  as, — 

TarquiniT  materna  patria  erat,  Tarqninii  was  his  native  country 
oti  his  mother's  side ; 

non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dlcenda,  not  every  error  is  to  be  called 

folly. 

a.  Less  frequently  the  verb  agrees  with  an  appositive;  as, — 

Corioli,  oppidum  Volscdrum,  captum  est,  Corioli,  a  town  of  the 

Volsci ,  was  captured . 

4.  Construction  according  to  Sense.  Sometimes  the  verb 
agrees  with  its  subject  according  to  sense  instead  of  strict  grammatical 
form.  Thus:  — 

a)  In  Number;  as, — 

multitudo  hominum  convenerant,  a  crowd  of  men  had 

gathered. 

b)  In  Gender;  as, — 

duo  mllia  crucibus  adflxi  sunt,  two  thousand  (men)  were 

crucified. 

m 

With  Two  or  More  Subjects. 

255.  I.  Agreement  in  Number.  With  two  or  more  sub¬ 
jects  the  verb  is  regularly  plural ;  as,  — 

pater  et  fllius  mortul  sunt,  the  father  and  son  died. 

2.  But  sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject;  viz ., — 

a)  When  the  verb  precedes  both  subjects  or  stands  between 
them ;  as,  — 

mortuus  est  pater  et  fllius  ; 
pater  mortuus  est  et  fllius. 

b)  When  the  subjects  are  connected  by  aut ;  aut  .  .  .  aut ; 

vel  .  .  .  vel ;  neque  .  .  .  neque ;  as, — 

neque  pater  neque  fllius  mortuus  est,  neither  father  nor 

son  died. 

3.  When  the  different  subjects  are  felt  together  as  constituting  a 
whole,  the  singular  is  used  ;  as,  — 

temeritas  ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad. 
a.  This  is  regularly  the  case  in  senatus  populusque  Romanus. 


Voices.  —  Tenses. 


1 67 

4.  Agreement  in  Person.  With  compound  subjects  of  different 
persons  the  verb  always  takes  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second, 
and  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  as, — 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and  Tidlia 
are  well ,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

5.  Agreement  in  Gender.  With  subjects  of  different  genders  the 
participle  in  the  compound  tenses  follows  the  same  principles  as  laid 
down  for  predicate  adjectives.  See  §  235,  B,  2. 

VOICES. 

256.  1.  The  Passive  Voice  sometimes  retains  traces  of  its  original 
middle  or  reflexive  meaning ;  as,  — 

ego  non  patiar  eum  defend!,  I  shall  not  allow  him  to  defend  himself. 

2.  In  imitation  of  Greek  usage  many  perfect  passive  participles  are 
used  by  the  poets  as  indirect  middles,  i.e.  the  subject  is  viewed  as  act¬ 
ing  not  upon  himself,  but  as  doing  something  in  his  own  interest ;  as, — 

velatus  tempora,  having  veiled  his  temples. 

a.  Occasionally  finite  forms  of  the  verb  are  thus  used  ;  as,  — 
tunica  inducitur  artus,  he  covers  his  limbs  with  a  tunic. 

3.  Intransitive  Verbs  may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  passive  ;  as, — 

curritur,  people  run  (lit.  it  is  run )  ; 

ventum  est,  he  {they,  etc.)  came  (lit.  it  was  come). 


TENSES. 

TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 

257.  1.  The  Latin  tenses  express  two  distinct  no¬ 
tions  :  — 

a)  The  period  of  time  to  which  the  action  belongs : 
Present,  Past,  or  Future. 

b)  The  kind  of  action:  Undefined,  Going  on,  or 
Completed. 

The  Latin  with  its  six  tenses  is  able  to  express  each  of  the  three  kinds 
of  action  for  each  of  the  three  periods  of  time  (making  practically  nine 


Syntax. 


1 68 

tenses).  It  does  this  by  employing  certain  tenses  in  more  than  one 
way,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  table :  — 


PERIOD  OF  TIME. 


r-  —  " 

Present. 

Past. 

- 

Future. 

'  Undefined. 

Present : 

Historical  Perfect: 

Future : 

z 

o 

HH 

scrlbS,  1  write. 

scrips!,  I  wrote. 

scribam  ,1  shall 

write. 

H 

U 

<< 

Going  on. 

Present : 

Imperfect : 

Future : 

U-* 

scribd,  I  am 

scribebam,  I 

scribam,  I shall 

o  * 

n 

writing. 

was  writing. 

be  writing. 

z 

M 

Completed. 

Present  Perfect: 

Pluperfect : 

Future  Perfect: 

scrips!,  I  have 
written. 

scripseram,  I 

had  written. 

scripserS,  I 

shall  have  writ¬ 
ten. 

2.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Present  may  express  Undefined  action 
or  action  Going  on;  so  also  the  Future.  The  Perfect  likewise  has  a 
double  use,  according  as  it  denotes  action  Completed  in  present  time 
(Present  Perfect)  or  Undefined  action  belonging  to  past  time  (Historical 
Perfect). 

Principal  and  Historical  Tenses. 

258.  Tenses  which  denote  Present  or  Future  time  are 
called  Principal  (or  Primary)  Tenses;  those  which  denote 
Past  time  are  called  Historical  (or  Secondary). 

The  Principal  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  are:  Present, 
Future,  Present  Perfect,  Future  Perfect. 

The  Historical  Tenses  are:  Imperfect,  Historical  Per¬ 
fect,  Pluperfect. 

Present  Indicative. 

259.  Besides  the  two  uses  indicated  in  the  table,  the 
Present  Indicative  presents  the  following  peculiarities  :  — 

I.  It  is  used  to  denote  a  general  truth ,  i.e.  something  true  not 
merely  in  the  present  but  at  all  times  (‘  Gnomic  Present1)  ;  as, — 

virtus  conciliat  amlcitias  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  ties  of 
friendship  and  maintains  them  (i.e.  always  does  so) . 


Tenses . 


169 


2.  It  is  used  of  an  attempted  action  (*  Conative  Present  ’)  ;  as,  — 

dum  vltant  vitia,  in  contraria  currunt,  while  they  try  to  avoid 
(vltant)  vices ,  they  rush  into  opposite  ones. 

3.  In  lively  narration  the  Present  is  often  used  of  a  past  action 
(‘  Historical  Present  ’)  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  Haeduis  obsides  imperat,  Caesar  demanded  hostages  of  the 
Haedui  (lit.  demands ) . 

4.  In  combination  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  prldem,  and  similar 
words,  the  Present  is  frequently  used  of  an  action  originating  in  the 
past  and  continuing  in  the  present ;  as,  — 

jam  diu  cupio  te  visere,  I  have  long  been  desiring  to  visit  you  (i.e.  I 
desire  and  have  long  desired). 


Imperfect  Indicative. 

260.  1.  The  Imperfect  primarily  denotes  action  going  on 
in  past  time  ;  as,  — 

librum  legebam,  I  was  reading  a  book. 

a.  This  force  makes  the  Imperfect  especially  adapted  to  serve 
as  the  tense  of  description  (as  opposed  to  mere  narration). 

2.  From  the  notion  of  action  going  on,  there  easily  develops  the 
notion  of  repeated  or  customary  action  ;  as,  — 

legatos  interrogabat,  he  kept  asking  the  envoys ; 

puer  C.  Dullium  videbam,  as  a  boy  /  often  used  to  see  Gains  Duilius. 

3.  The  Imperfect  often  denotes  an  attempted  action  (‘Conative  Im¬ 
perfect1)  or  an  action  as  beginning  (‘  Inceptive  Imperfect1)  ;  as, — 

hostes  nostros  intra  munltiones  progredl  prohibebant,  the  e?iemy 
tried  to  prevent  (prohibebant)  our  men  frojn  advancing  within 
the  fortifications  (‘  Conative  ’)  ; 

ad  proelium  se  expediebant,  they  were  beginning  to  get  ready  for 
battle  (‘Inceptive1). 

4.  The  Imperfect,  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  dudum,  etc.,  is  some¬ 
times  used  of  an  action  which  had  been  continuing  some  time  ;  as, — 

domicilium  Romae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  had  his 

residence  at  Rome  for  many  years  (i.e.  he  had  it  at  this  time 
and  had  long  had  it). 


Syntax. 


170 

Future  Indicative. 

261.  1.  The  Latin  is  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  than 
is  the  English.  We  say  :  4  If  he  comes,  I  shall  be  glad,"1  where  wre  really 
mean:  4 If  he  shall  come]  etc.  In  such  cases  the  Latin  rarely  admits 
the  Present,  but  generally  employs  the  Future. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Future  has  Imperative  force;  as,  dices,  say i 

Perfect  Indicative. 

262.  A.  Present  Perfect.  Several  Present  Perfects  denote  the 
state  resulting  from  a  completed  act ,  and  so  seem  equivalent  to  the 
Present ;  as,  — 

novi,  cognovi,  I  know  (lit.  I  have  become  acquainted  with)  , 
consuevi,  I  am  wont  (lit.  I  have  become  accusto?hed). 

B.  Historical  Perfect.  The  Historical  Perfect  is  the  tense  of 
narration  (as  opposed  to  the  Imperfect,  the  tense  of  description)',  as, — 

Regulus  in  senatum  venit,  mandSta  exposuit,  redd!  captivos 
negavit  esse  utile,  Regulus  came  into  the  Senate,  set  forth  his 
commission ,  said  it  was  useless  for  captives  to  be  returned. 

1.  Occasionally  the  Historical  Perfect  is  used  of  a  general  truth  (‘  Gnomic 
Perfect  ’). 

Pluperfect  Indicative. 

263.  The  Latin  Pluperfect,  like  the  English  Past  Per¬ 
fect,  denotes  an  act  completed  in  the  past ;  as,  — 

Caesar  Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  sed  naves  deerant,  Caesar 

had  decided  to  cross  the  Rhine ,  but  had  no  boats, 
a.  In  those  verbs  whose  Perfect  has  Present  force  (§  262,  A), 
the  Pluperfect  has  the  force  of  an  Imperfect;  as, — 

noveram,  I  knew. 

Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

264.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  completed  in 
future  time.  Thus  :  — 

scribam  epistulam,  cum  redieris,  I  will  write  the  letter  when  you 
have  returned  (lit.  when  you  shall  have  returned). 

a.  The  Latin  is  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  Per¬ 
fect  than  the  English,  which  commonly  employs  the  Present 
Perfect  instead  of  the  Future  Perfect. 

b.  In  those  verbs  whose  Perfect  has  Present  force  (§  262,  A) 
the  Future  Perfect  has  the  force  of  a  Future ;  as, — 
novero,  I  shall  know. 


Sequence  of  Tenses. 


i/i 


Epistolary  Tenses. 

265.  In  letters  the  writer  often  uses  tenses  which  are  not  appro¬ 
priate  at  the  time  of  writing,  but  which  will  be  so  at  the  time  when  his 
letter  is  received ;  he  thus  employs  the  Imperfect  and  the  Perfect  for 
the  Present,  and  the  Pluperfect  for  the  Present  Perfect;  as, — 

nihil  habebam  quod  scribcrem,  neque  enim  novl  quidquam 
audieram  et  ad  tuas  omnes  epistulas  jam  rescripseram,  / 

have  nothing  to  write ,  for  /  have  heard  no  news  and  have 
already  answered  all  your  letters. 

TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

266.  A.  In  Independent  Sentences.  See  §§  2/2—280. 

B.  In  Dependent  Sentences.  In  dependent  sentences  the 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  usually  conform  to  the  so-called 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

267.  i.  In  the  Subjunctive  the  Present  and  Perfect  are 
Principal  tenses,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  Historical. 

2.  By  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  Principal  tenses  are  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Principal,  Historical  by  Historical.  Thus;  — 

Principal  Sequence,  — 

•video  quid  facias,  [see  what  you  are  doing. 

^videbo  quid  facias,  /  shall  see  what  you  are  doing. 

vldero  quid  facias,  /  shall  have  seen  what  you  are  doing. 
video  quid  fecerls,  I  see  what  you  have  done. 

^videbo  quid  fecerls,  I  shall  see  what  you  have  done. 
vldero  quid  fecerls,  I  shall  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 

Historical  Sequence, — 

videbam  quid  faceres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 

-^vldi  quid  faceres,  [saw  what  you  were  doing. 

vlderam  quid  faceres,  [had  seen  what  you  were  doing. 
videbam  quid  fecisses,  [saw  what  you  had  done. 
vldl  quid  fecisses,  [saw  what  you  had  done, 
gs  vlderam  quid  fecisses,  [had  seen  what  you  had  done. 

3.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  denote  incomplete 
action,  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  completed  action,  exactly  as  in  the 
Indicative. 


Syntax. 


172 

Peculiarities  of  Sequence. 

268.  1.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  usually  an  historical  tense  (even 
when  translated  in  English  as  a  Present  Perfect),  and  so  is  followed  by 
the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive;  as, — 

demonstravl  quare  ad  causam  accederem,  /  have  shown  why  I 
took  the  case  (lit.  /  showed  why ,  etc.).  s 

2.  A  dependent  Perfect  Infinitive  is  treated  as  an  historical  tense 
wherever,  if  resolved  into  an  equivalent  Indicative,  it  would  be  his¬ 
torical  ;  as,  — 

videor  ostendisse  quales  del  essent,  I  seem  to  have  shown  of  what 
nature  the  gods  are  (ostendisse  here  corresponds  to  an  Indic¬ 
ative,  ostendl,  I  showed). 

3.  The  Historical  Present  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  principal 
tense,  sometimes  as  historical.  Thus  :  — 

Sulla  suos  hortatur  ut  fortl  animo  sint,  Sulla  exhorts  his  soldiers 

to  be  stout-hearted ; 

Gallos  hortatur  ut  arma  caperent,  he  exhorted  the  Gauls  to  take 

arms. 

4.  Conditional  sentences  of  the  1  contrary-to-fact  ’  type  are  not 
affected  by  the  principles  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses;  as, — 

honestum  tale  est  ut  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines  sua  tamen 
pulchritudine  laudabile  esset,  virtue  is  such  a  thing  that 
even  if  men  were  ignorant  of  it,  it  would  still  be  worthy  of 
praise  for  its  own  loveliness. 

5.  In  conditional  sentences  of  the  ‘contrary-to-fact’  type  the  Imper¬ 
fect  Subjunctive  is  usually  treated  as  an  Historical  tense ;  as,  — 

si  solos  eos  dlceres  miseros,  quibus  moriendum  esset,  neminem 
tu  quidem  eorum  qul  vlverent  exciperes,  if  you  called  only 
those  wretched  who  must  die ,  you  would  except  no  one  of  those 
who  live. 

6.  In  clauses  of  Result  and  some  others,  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is 
sometimes  used  as  an  historical  tense.  Thus  :  — 

rex  tantum  motus  est,  ut  Tissaphernem  hostem  judicarit,  the 

king  was  so  much  moved  that  he  adjudged  Tissaphernes  an 
enemy. 

This  construction  is  rare  in  Cicero,  but  frequent  in  Nepos  and  sub¬ 
sequent  historians.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  this  use  represents  a 


Sequence  of  Tenses. 


173 


result  simply  as  a  fact  without  reference  to  the  continuance  of  the  act> 
and  therefore  corresponds  to  an  Historical  Perfect  Indicative  of  direct 
statement.  Thus,  judicarit  in  the  above  example  corresponds  to 
a  judicavit,  he  adjudged.  To  denote  a  result  as  something  continuous, 
all  writers  use  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  historical  tenses. 

7.  Sometimes  perspicuity  demands  that  the  ordinary  principles  of 
Sequence  be  abandoned  altogether.  Thus  :  — 

a )  We  may  have  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  an 
historical  tense ;  as,  — • 

Verres  Siciliam  ita  perdidit  ut  ea  restitm  non  possit, 

Verres  so  ruined  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored 
(Direct  statement ;  non  potest  restitui)  ; 
ardebat  Hortensius  dlcendl  cupiditate  sic,  ut  in  nullo 
flagrantius  studium  vlderim,  Hortensius  burned  so 
with  eagerness  to  speak  dhat  I  have  seen  in  no  one  a 
greater  desire  (Direct  statement:  in  nullo  vldi,  I  have 
see?i  in  no  one ) . 

NOTE.  —  This  usage  is  different  from  that  cited  under  6.  Here,  by  neglect  of 
Sequence,  the  Perfect  is  used  though  a  principal  tense  ;  there  the  Perfect  was  used 
as  an  historical  tense. 

b')  We  may  have  a  principal  tense  followed  by  the  Perfect  Sub¬ 
junctive  used  historically ;  as,  — 

nescio  quid  causae  fuerit  cur  null  as  ad  me  litteras 
dares,  /  do  not  know  what  reason  there  was  why  you 
did  not  send  me  a  letter. 

Here  fuerit  is  historical,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  Im¬ 
perfect  Subjunctive. 

Method  of  Expressing  Future  Time  in  the  Subjunctive. 

269.  The  Future  and  Future  Perfect  which  are  lacking 
to  the  Latin  Subjunctive  are  supplied  in  subordinate 
clauses  as  follows  :  — 

I.  a )  The  Future  is  supplied  by  the  Present  after  principal  tenses, 
by  the  Imperfect  after  historical  tenses. 

b)  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied  by  the  Perfect  after  principal 
tenses,  by  the  Pluperfect  after  historical  tenses. 

This  is  especially  frequent  when  the  context  clearly  shows, 
by  the  presence  of  a  future  tense  in  the  main  clause,  that  the 
reference  is  to  future  time.  Thus  :  — 


174 


Syntax. 


Galll  pollicentur  se  facturos,  quae  Caesar  imperet,  the  Gauh 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  order ; 

Galll  pollicebantur  se  facturos,  quae  Caesar  imperaret,  the  Gauls 

promised  they  would  do  what  Caesar  should  order ; 

Galll  pollicentur  se  facturos  quae  Caesar  imperaverit,  the  Gaids 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  have  ordered ; 

Galll  pollicebantur  se  facturos  quae  Caesar  imperavisset,  the 

Gaids  promised  they  woidd  do  what  Caesar  should  have  ordered . 

2.  Even  where  the  context  does  not  contain  a  Future  tense  in  the 
main  clause,  Future  time  is  often  expressed  in  the  subordinate  clauses 
by  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive.  Thus  :  — 

timed  ne  veniat,  /  am  afraid  he  will  come ; 

Caesar  exspectabat  quid  consill  hostes  caperent,  Caesar  was 

waiting  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  woidd  adopt. 

3.  Where  greater  definiteness  is  necessary  the  periphrastic  forms 
in  -urus  sim  and  -urus  essem  are  employed,  especially  in  clauses  of 
Result,  Indirect  Questions,  and  after  non  dubito  quin;  as, — 

non  dubitd  quin  pater  venturus  sit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  my  father 

will  come ; 

non  dubitabam  quin  pater  venturus  esset,  I  did  not  doubt  that 

my  father  would  come. 

4.  Where  the  verb  has  no  Future  Active  Participle,  or  where  it 
stands  in  the  passive  voice,  its  Future  character  may  be  indicated  by 
the  use  of  the  particles  mox,  brevl,  statim,  etc.,  in  connection  with 
the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive;  as, — 

non  dubito  quin  te  mox  hujus  rel  paeniteat,  I  do  not  doubt  that 

you  will  soon  repent  of  this  thing ; 

non  dubitabam  quin  haec  res  brevl  conficeretur,  I  did  not  doubt 

that  this  thing  would  soon  be  finished. 

TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

270.  1.  The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  denote  time  not 
absolutely,  but  with  reference  to  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend.  Thus :  — 

a)  The  Present  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  contemporaneous 
with  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends;  as, — 
videtur  honores  adsequl,  he  seems  to  be  gaining  honors ; 
videbatur  honores  adsequl,  he  seemed  to  be  gaining  honors. 


Tenses  of  the  Infinitive.  175 

b)  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  prior  to  the  time 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

videtur  honores  adsecutus  esse,  he  seems  to  have  gamed 
honors  ; 

vlsus  est  honores  adsecutus  esse,  he  seemed  to  have 
gained  honors. 

c)  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  subsequent  to  that 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

videtur  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seems  to  be  about  to 
gain  honors ; 

vlsus  est  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seemed  to  be  abotit 
to  gain  honors. 

2.  Where  the  English  says  ‘  ought  to  have  done  ,’  ‘  might  have  done? 
etc  ,  the  Latin  uses  debui,  oportuit,  potui  (debebam,  oportebat, 
poteram),  with  the  Present  Infinitive;  as, — 

debuit  dicere,  he  ought  to  have  said  (lit.  owed  it  to  say)  ; 
oportuit  venire,  he  ought  to  have  co?ne ; 
potuit  videre,  he  might  have  seen. 

a.  Oportuit,  volo.nolo  (and  in  poetry  some  other  verbs),  may  take  a 
Perfect  Infinitive  instead  of  the  Present ;  as,  — 

hoc  jam  prldem  factum  esse  oportuit,  this  ought  long  ago  to 
have  been  done. 

3.  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive.  Verbs  that  have  no  Parti¬ 
cipial  Stem  express  the  Future  Infinitive  Active  and  Passive  by  fore 
ut  or  futurum  esse  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

sper®  fore  ut  te  paeniteat  levitatis,  /  hope  you  will  repent  of  your 
fickleness  (lit.  hope  it  will  happen  that  you  repent)  ; 
spero  futurum  esse  ut  hostes  arceantur,  I  hope  that  the  enetny  will 
be  kept  off. 

a.  The  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive  is  often  used,  especially  in  the 
Passive,  even  in  case  of  verbs  which  have  the  Participial  Stem;  as, — 
spero  fore  ut  hostes  vincantur,  /  hope  the  enemy  will  be  con¬ 
quered. 

4.  Passives  and  Deponents  sometimes  form  a  Future  Perfect  Infini¬ 
tive  with  fore  ;  as, — 

spero  epistulam  scrlptam  fore,  I  hope  the  letter  will  have  been 
written ; 

puto  me  omnia  adeptum  fore,  I  thitik  that  I  shall  have  gaitied 
everything. 


176 


Syntax . 


THE  MOODS. 

MOODS  IN  INDEPENDENT  SENTENCES. 

The  Indicative  in  Independent  Sentences. 

271.  The  Indicative  is  used  for  the  statement  of  facts , 
the  supposition  of  facts,  or  inquiry  after  facts. 

1 .  Note  the  following  idiomatic  uses  :  — 

a)  With  possum;  as, — 

possum  multa  dlcere,  I  might  say  much  ; 

poteram  multa  dlcere,  1  might  have  said  much  (§  270,  2). 

b)  In  such  expressions  as  longum  est,  aequum  est,  melius 
est,  difficile  est,  utilius  est,  and  some  others ;  as,  — 

longum  est  ea  dlcere,  it  woidd  be  tedious  to  tell  that ; 
difficile  est  omnia  persequl,  it  woidd  be  difficult  to  enu¬ 
merate  everything. 

The  Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences. 

272.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Independent  Sentences 
to  express  something  — 

1.  As  willed — Volitive  Subjunctive; 

2.  As  desired  —  Optative  Subjunctive  ; 

•  3.  Conceived  of  as  possible  —  Potential  Subjunctive. 

VOLITIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

273.  The  Volitive  Subjunctive  represents  the  action  as 
willed.  It  always  implies  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker,  and  has  the  following  varieties  :  — 

A.  Hortatory  Subjunctive. 

274.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  expresses  an  exhor¬ 
tation.  This  use  is  confined  to  the  first  person  plural, 
of  the  Present.  The  negative  is  ne.  Thus  :  — 

eamus,  let  us  go ; 

amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country ; 
ne  desperemus,  let  us  not  despair. 


The  Vclitive  Subjunctive. 


1 77 


B.  Jussive  Subjunctive. 

275.  The  Jussive  Subjunctive  expresses  a  command . 
The  Jussive  stands  regularly  in  the  Present  Tense,  and 
is  used  — 

1.  Most  frequently  in  the  third  singular  and  third  plural ;  as,  — 

dicat,  let  him  tell ; 

dicant,  let  them  tell ; 

quare  secedant  improbl,  wherefore  let  the  wicked  depart  l 

2.  Less  frequently  in  the  second  person,  often  with  indefinite 
force;  as, — 

isto  bono  titare,  use  that  advantage  ; 
modeste  vivas,  live  temperately. 

C.  Prohibitive  Subjunctive. 

276.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular  and  plural,  with  ne,  to  express  a  prohibi¬ 
tion.  Both  Present  and  Perfect  occur,  and  without  appre¬ 
ciable  difference  of  meaning ;  as,  — 

ne  repugnetis,  do  not  resist ! 
tu  vero  istam  ne  rellquerls,  don't  leave  herl 
impil  ne  placare  audeant  deos,  let  not  the  impious  dare  to 
appease  the  gods  l 

a.  Neither  of  these  constructions  is  frequent  in  classical  prose. 

b.  A  commoner  method  of  expressing  a  prohibition  in  the  second 
person  is  by  the  use  of  noli  (nollte)  with  a  following  infini¬ 
tive,  or  by  cave  or  cave  ne  with  the  Subjunctive ;  as, — 

noli  hoc  facere,  don't  do  this  (lit.  be  unwilling  to  do) ! 

nollte  mentlrl,  do  not  lie ! 

cave  ignoscas,  cave  te  misereat,  do  not  forgive ,  do  not 
pity  l 

cave  ne  haec  facias,  do  not  do  this  (lit.  take  care  lest 
you  do)  ! 

D.  Deliberative  Subjunctive. 

277.  The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions 
and  exclamations  implying  doubt ,  indignation,  the  impos¬ 
sibility  of  an  act ,  obligation ,  or  propriety.  The  Present  is 


i78 


Syntax. 


used  referring  to  present  time,  the  Imperfect  referring 
to  past.*  The  negative  is  non.  Thus;  — 

quid  faciam,  what  shall  I  do  ? 
ego  redeam,  I  go  back  l 

huic  cedamus  !  hujus  condiciones  audiamus  !  are  we  to 

bow  to  him !  are  we  to  listen  to  his  terms ! 
quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do  ? 

hunc  ego  non  diligam,  should  I  not  cherish  this  man  ? 

ownaafo* 

a.  These  Deliberative  Questions  are  usually  purely  Rhetorical  in  char¬ 
acter,  and  do  not  expect  an  answer. 


E.  Concessive  Subjunctive. 


278.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  something  as 
granted  or  conceded  for  the  sake  of  argument.  The  Present 
is  used  for  present  time,  the  Perfect  regularly  for  past. 
The  negative  is  ne.  Thus:  — 


sit  hoc  verum,  I  grant  that  this  is  true  (lit.  let  this  be  true') ; 
ne  sint  in  senectute  vires,  I  grant  there  is  not  strength  in  old  age. 
fuerit  malus  civis  aliis ;  tibi  quando  esse  coepit,  I  grant  that  he 


was  a  bad  citizen  to  others ;  when  did  he  begin  to  be  so  toward  you  ? 


OPTATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


279.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  occurs  in  expressions  of 


wishing.  The  negative  is  regularly  ne. 


mpanied  by  utinalm,  is  used  where 


i.  The  Present  Tense,  often  accompanied 
the  wish  is  conceived  of  as  possible. 


di  istaec  prohibeant,  may  the  gods  prevent  that  l  Y 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim,  oh  that  I  may  be  a  false  prophet ! 
ne  veniant,  may  they  not  come  ! 

2.  The  Imperfect  expresses,  in  the  form  of  a  wish,  the  regret  that 
something  is  not  so  now ;  the  Pluperfect  that  something  was  not  so  in 
the  past.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  regularly  accompanied  by 
utinam ;  as,  — 

utinam  istud  ex  animo  dlceres,  woidd  that  you  were  saying  that  in 


earnest,  (J.e.  I  regret  that  you  are  not  saying  it  in  earnest)  ; 


Pelldes  utinam  vltasset  Apollinis  arcus,  woidd  that  Achilles  had 


escaped  the  bow  of  Apollo ; 

utinam  n§  natus  essem,  would  that  I  had  not  been  born. 


The  Potential  Subjunctive. 


179 


POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


280.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  expresses  a  possibility. 
The  negative  is  non.  The  following  uses  are  to  be  noted : — - 

1.  The  ‘May1  Potential.  —  The  Potential  Subjunctive  may  desig¬ 
nate  a  mere  possibility  (English  auxiliary  may).  Both  Present  and 
Perfect  occur,  and  without  appreciable  difference  of  meaning.  Thus  :  — • 


dicat  aliquis,  so? fie  one  may  say ; 

dixerit  aliquis,  some  one  may  say. 


a .  This  construction  is  by  no  means  frequent,  and  is  confined 
mainly  to  a  few  phrases  like  those  given  as  examples. 

2.  i  Should  Would  ’  Potential.  —  The  Potential  Subjunctive 
may  represent  something  as  depending  upon  a  condition  expressed  or 
understood  (English  auxiliary  should ,  would).  Both  Present  and  Per¬ 
fect  occur,  and  without  appreciable  difference  of  meaning.  Thus  :  — 
fortunam  citius  reperias  quam  retineas,  one  would  more  quickly  find 
Fortune  than  keep  it  ( i.e .  if  one  should  make  the  trial)  ; 
crediderim,  I  should  believe. 

a.  Here  belongs  the  Use  of  velim,  malim,  nolim,  as  softened 
forms  of  statement  for  volo,  malo,  nolo.  Thus  :  — 


velim  mihi  ignoscas,  I  wish  you  would  forgive  me; 

'  nolim  putes  me  jocarl,  I  don't  want  you  to  think  Pm  joking, 
b.  When  the  condition  is  expressed,  we  get  one  of  the  regular 
types  of  Conditional  Sentences  (see  §  303)  ;  as, — 
dies  deficiat,  si  coner  enumerare  causas,  time  would 
fail  if  I  should  attempt  to  enumerate  the  reasons. 

3.  i  Can  Could 1  Potential.  —  In  the  Present  and  Imperfect  the 
Potential  occurs,  in  the  second  person  singular  (with  indefinite  force ; 
§  356,  3)  of  a  few  verbs  of  perceiving ,  seeing ,  thinking ,  and  the  like  ;  as, — 


videas,  cernas,  one  can  see ,  one  can  perceive  ;  is 


crederes,  one  coidd  believe ;  // 

videres,  cerneres,  one  could  see,  perceive ; 
putares,  one  could  imagine. 

4.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  in  the  Apodosis  of  conditional 
sentences  of  the  contrary-to-fact  type  (see  §  304)  are  also  Potential  in 
character.  By  omission  of  the  Protasis,  such  an  Apodosis  sometimes 
stands  alone,  particularly  vellem,  nollem,  mallem  ;  as, — 


vellem  id  quidem,  /  should  wish  that  (i.e.  were  I  bold 
enough). 


i8o 


Syntax . 


The  Imperative. 

281.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands ,  admonitions , 
and  entreaties  (negative  ne) ;  as,  — 

egredere  ex  urbe,  depart  fro77i  the  city  ; 
mihi  ignosce, pardon  me; 
vale,  farewell. 

1.  The  Present  is  the.  tense  of  the  Imperative  most  commonly  used, 
but  the  Future  is  employed  — 

a)  Where  there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  future  time,  especially 
in  the  apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  ;  as,  — 

rem  vobls  proponam  ;  vos  earn  penditote,  /  will  lay  the 
matter  before  you  ;  do  you  ( then )  consider  it ; 
si  bene  disputabit,  tribuito  litterls  Graecls,  if  he  shall 

speak  well,  attribute  it  to  Greek  literature. 

b}  In  laws,  treaties,  wills,  maxims,  etc. ;  as,  — 

consules  summum  jus  habento,  the  consids  shall  have 

siipreme  power ; 

hominem  mortuom  in  urbe  ne  sepelltS,  no  one  shall  bury 

a  dead  body  in  the  city ; 

amlcitia  regi  Antiocho  cum  populo  Romano  his  legi- 
bus  et  condicionibus  esto,  let  there  be  frie7idship  be- 
twee7i  Antiochus  a7id  the  Ro7na7i  people  on  the  followmg 
ter7ns  a7id  co7iditions ; 

quartae  esto  partis  Marcus  heres,  let  Marcus  be  heir  to 
a  fourth  (of  the  property}  ; 

ignoscito  saepe  alterl,  numquam  tibi,  forgive  your  7ieigh- 

bor  ofte7i ,  yourself  7iever. 

2.  Except  with  the  Future  Imperative  the  negative  is  not  used  in 
classical  prose.  Prohibitions  are  regularly  expressed  in  other  ways. 
See  §  276,  b. 

3.  Questions  in  the  Indicative  introduced  by  quin  (zvhy  not?}  are 
often  equivalent  to  an  Imperative  or  to  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive ;  as, — 

quin  abls,  go  away!  (lit.  why  do7i't  you  go  away?}  ; 

quin  vocem  continetis,  keep  still !  (lit.  why  don't  you  stop  yoiir 

voices  ?} ; 

quin  equSs  conscendimus,  let  us  mount  our  horses  (lit.  why  do  we 
not  7710 iuit  our  horses  ?} . 


Clauses  of  Purpose . 


181 


MOODS  IN  DEPENDENT  CLAUSES. 

Clauses  of  Purpose. 

282.  i.  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  most  com¬ 
monly  by  ut  (utl),  quo  (that,  in  order  that),  ne  (in  order  that 
not,  lest),  and  stand  in  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 
edimus,  ut  vlvamus,  we  eat  that  we  may  live  ; 

adjuta  me  quo  hoc  fiat  facilius,  help  me,  in  order  that  this  may  be 
done  more  easily ; 

portas  clausit,  ne  quam  oppidanl  injuriani  acciperent,  he  closed 
the  gates,  lest  the  townspeople  should  receive  any  injury . 

a.  Quo,  as  a  rule,  is  employed  only  when  the  purpose  clause 
contains  a  comparative  or  a  comparative  idea.  Occasional 
exceptions  occur ;  as,  — 

haec  faciunt  quo  Chremetem  absterreant,  they  are  doing 
this  in  order  to  frighten  Chr  ernes. 

b.  Ut  ne  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  ne.  Thus  :  — 

ut  ne  quid  neglegenter  agamus,  in  order  that  we  may  not 

do  atiything  carelessly. 

c.  Ut  non  (not  ne)  is  used  where  the  negation  belongs  to  some 
single  word,  instead  of  to  the  purpose  clause  as  a  whole. 
Thus :  — 

ut  non  ejectus  ad  alienos,  sed  invltatus  ad  tuos  vide- 
are,  that  you  may  seem  not  driven  out  among  stra?igers, 
but  invited  to  your  own  friends. 

d.  To  say  i  and  that  not 1  or  ‘  or  that  not l  the  Latin  regularly 
uses  neve  (neu)  ;  as,  — 

ut  earum  rerum  vis  minueretur,  neu  pontl  nocerent, 

that  the  viole7ice  of  these  things  might  be  lessened,  and 
that  they  might  not  harm  the  bridge ; 

profugit,  ne  caperetur  neve  interficeretur,  he  fled,  that  he 
might  not  be  captured  or  killed. 

e.  But  neque  (for  neve)  is  sometimes  used  in  a  second  Purpose  Clause 
when  ut  stands  in  the  first,  and,  after  the  Augustan  era,  even  when  the 
first  clause  is  introduced  by  ne. 

f.  Purpose  Clauses  sometimes  stand  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun 
or  pronoun  ;  as, — 

hac  causa,  ut  pacem  haberent,  on  this  account,  that  they  7nighi 
have  peace. 


1 82 


Syntax. 


2.  A  Relative  Pronoun  (qul)  or  Adverb  (ubi,  unde,  quo)  is  fre¬ 
quently  used  to  introduce  a  Purpose  Clause  ;  as,  — 

Helvetii  legatos  mittunt,  qul  dlcerent,  the  Helvetii  sent  envoys  to 
say  (lit.  who  should  say )  ; 

haec  habui,  de  senectute  quae  dicerem,  I  had  these  things  to  say 

about  old  age  ; 

non  habebat  quo  fugeret,  he  had  no  place  to  which  to  flee  (lit.  whither 
he  might  flee) . 

a.  Qul  in  such  clauses  is  equivalent  to  ut  is,  ut  ego,  etc. ;  ubi  to  ut 
ibi;  unde  to  ut  inde ;  quo  tp'ut  ed. 

3.  Relative  clauses  of  purpose  follow  dignus,  indignus,  and  ido- 
neus  ;  as,  — 

idoneus  fuit  nemo  quem  imitarere,  there  was  no  o?ie  suitable  for 
you  to  imitate  (cf.  nemo  fuit  quem  imitarere,  there  was  ?io 
one  for  you  to  imitate )  ; 

dignus  est  qul  aliquando  imperet,  he  is  worthy  to  rule  sometime. 

4.  Purpose  Clauses  often  depend  upon  something  to  be  supplied 
from  the  context  instead  of  upon  the  principal  verb  of  their  own  sen¬ 
tences  ;  as,  — 

ut  haec  omnia  omittam,  abiimus,  to  pass  over  all  this ,  (/  will  say 
that )  we  departed. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic. 

283.  1.  A  relative  clause  used  to  express  a  quality  or 
characteristic  of  a  general  or  indefinite  antecedent  is  called 
a  Clause  of  Characteristic,  and  usually  stands  in  the 
Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

multa  sunt,  quae  mentem  acuant,  there  are  many  things  which 

sharpen  the  wits. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  opposed  to  those  relative  clauses  which 
are  used  merely  to  state  some  fact  about  a  definite  antecedent,  and 
which  therefore  take  the  Indicative;  as, — 

Cato,  senex  jucundus,  qul  Sapiens  appellatus  est,  Cato ,  a  delight - 
fill  old  man,  who  was  called  i  The  Wise.' 

The  Clause  of  Characteristic  implies  c  a  person  of  the  sort  that  does 
something 1 ;  the  Indicative  relative  clause  implies  ‘  a  particular  person 
who  does  something .’ 


Clauses  of  Characteristic. 


183 


2.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  used  especially  after  such  expressions 
as,  est  qul ;  sunt  qui ;  nemo  est  qul ;  nullus  est  qui ;  unus  est 
qui ;  solus^jest  qul ;  quis  est  qul ;  is  qui ;  etc.  Thus  :  — 

sunt  qul  dicant,  there  are  { some )  wJio  say ; 
nemo  est  qul  putet,  there  is  nobody  who  thinks ; 

sapientia  est  una  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  philosophy  is  the  only 
thing  that  drives  away  sorrow; 

quae  civitas  est  quae  non  evert!  possit,  what  state  is  there  that 
,  cannot  be  overthrown  ? 

non  is  sum  qui  improbos  laudem,  I  am  not  the  sort  of  77ia7i  that 
praises  the  wicked. 

a.  Sometimes  (very  rarely  in  Cicero  and  Caesar)  the  clause  of  characteris¬ 
tic  is  used  after  comparatives;  as, — 

non  longius  hostes  aberant  quam  quo  telum  adigd  posset, 

the  enemy  were  not  too  far  off  for  a  dart  to  reach  them  ( lit.  further 
off  than  \a  point]  to  which  a  dart  could  be  cast). 

3.  The  Clause  of  Characteristic  often  conveys  an  accessory  notion 
of  cause  {since')  or  opposition  {although).  Thus;  — 

a)  Cause.  The  relative  is  then  frequently  accompanied  by  ut 

quippe,  utpote  ;  as,  — 

6  fortunate  adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homerum 
praeconem  inveneris,  O  forttmate  77ia7i ,  since  you 
*  have  found  a  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor; 
ut  qui  optimo  jure  earn  provinciam  obtinuerit,  sitice 
he  held  that  province  by  excellent  right. 

b)  Opposition :  — 

egomet  qui  sero  G-raecas  litteras  attigissem,  tamen 
complures  dies  Athenis  commoratus  sum,  1.  al¬ 
though  I  had  taken  up  Greek  literature  late  iti  life > 
7ievertheless  tarried  several  days  at  Athens. 

'  4.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  may  also  be  introduced  by  quin  =  q  ui 

(quae,  quod)  non;  as, — 

nemo  est  quin  saepe  audierit,  there  is  710  07ie  who  has  7iot  often 
heard; 

nemo  fuit  militum  quin  vulneraretur,  there  was  no  07ie  of  the  soldiers 
who  was  71  ot  woutided. 

5.  Related  to  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  also  phrases  of  the  type; 
quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know ;  quod  audierim,  so  far  as  /  have 
heard. 


Syntax . 


184 


Clauses  of  Result. 

284.  1.  Clauses  of  Result  are  usually  introduced  by  ut 
( that ,  so  that),  negative  ut  non  (so  that  not),  and  take  the 
Subjunctive.  The  main  clause  often  contains  tantus,  talis, 
tot,  is  (=  talis),  tam,  ita,  sic,  ade5,  or  some  similar  word. 
Thus :  — 

quis  tam  demens  est  ut  sua  voluntate  maereat,  who  is  so  senseless 

as  to  mourn  of  his  own  volition  ? 

Siciliam  ita  vastavit  ut  restitul  in  antiquum  statum  non  possit, 

he  has  so  ravaged  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored  to  its  former 
condition ; 

mons  altissimus  impendebat,  ut  facile  perpaucl  prohibere  pos- 
sent,  a  very  high  mountain  overhimg,  so  that  a  very  few  could 
easily  stop  them ; 

non  is  es  ut  te  pudor  umquam  a  turpitudine  avocarit ,yott  are  7iot 

so  constituted  that  shame  ever  called  y  ou  back  from  baseness. 

2.  A  Result  Clause  is  often  introduced  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or 
Adverb,  qul  (=  ut  is),  quo  (=  ut  eo),  etc.  ;  as, — 

nemo  est  tam  senex  qul  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vlvere,  nobody 
is  so  old  as  not  to  think  he  will  live  a  year ; 
habetis  eum  consulem  qul  parere  vestrls  decretls  non  dubitet, 

you  have  a  consul  such  as  does  not  hesitate  to  obey  your  decrees. 

a.  These  Relative  Clauses  of  Result  are  closely  related  to  the  Clause  of 
Characteristic,  and  sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two  con¬ 
structions.  It  is  best  to  class  the  relative  clause  as  one  of  Characteristic, 
unless  the  result  idea  is  clear  and  unmistakable. 

3.  Result  clauses  may  also  be  introduced  by  quin  =  ut  non  ;  as,  — • 

nihil  tam  difficile  est  quin  quaerendo  investlgarl  possit,  nothing 
is  so  difficult  that  it  cannot  be  discovered  by  searching; 
nemo  est  tam  fortis  quin  rel  novitate  perturbetur,  no  07ie  is  so 
steadfast  as  not  to  be  thrown  into  co7ifusio7i  by  a  stra7ige 
occurre7ice. 

4.  Note  the  use  of  quam  ut  (sometimes  quam  alone)  to  denote  Result 
after  comparatives ;  as,  — 

urbs  erat  munitior  quam  ut  prlmo  impetu  cap!  posset,  the  city  was  too 
strongly  fortified  to  be  taken  at  the  first  attack  (lit.  more  strongly  fortified 
than  that  it  could  be  taken,  etc .), 


Causal  Clauses. 


I85 


Causal  Clauses. 

285.  Causal  clauses  are  introduced  chiefly  by  the  fol¬ 
lowing  particles:  — 

1.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam. 

2.  Cum. 

3.  Quando. 

286.  The  use  of  moods  is  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam  take  the  Indicative  when  the 
reason  is  that  of  the  writer  or  speaker;  they  take  the  Sub¬ 
junctive  when  the  reason  is  viewed  as  that  of  another. 
Thus :  — 

Parthos  timed  quod  diffldo  copils  nostrls,  /  fear  the  Parthians , 
because  /  distrust  our  troops. 

Themistocles,  quia  non  tutus  erat,  Corcyram  demigravit,  The¬ 
mis  t  ocles,  since  he  was  not  safe ,  moved  to  Corcyra. 
neque  me  vlxisse  paenitet,  quoniam  bene  vixl,  /  do  not  regret 
having  lived ,  since  I  have  lived  well. 

Socrates  accusatus  est  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates 
was  arraigned  on  the  ground  that  he  was  corrupting  the  young. 
(Here  the  reason  >s  not  that  of  the  writer  but  of  the  accuser. 
Hence  the  Subjunctive.) 

Haedul  Caesarl  gratias  egerunt,  quod  se  periculo  llberavisset, 

the  Haedui  thanked  Caesar  because  he  had  delivered  the}>i  from 
danger.  (The  reason  of  the  Haedui.) 
quoniam  Miltiades  dlcere  non  posset,  verba  pro  eo  fecit  Ti¬ 
sagoras,  since  Miltiades  could  not  speak ,  Tisagoras  spoke  for 
him.  (The  reason  of  Tisagoras.) 

noctu  ambulabat  Themistocles,  quod  somnum  capere  non  pos¬ 
set,  Themistocles  used  to  walk  at  night  because  (as  he  said )  he 
couldn't  sleep. 

a.  Verbs  of  thinking  and  saying  often  stand  in  the  Subjunctive 
in  causal  clauses  as  though  the  act  of  thinking  or  saying, 
and  not  the  contents  of  the  thought  or  language,  constituted 
the  reason.  Thus  :  — 

BellovacI  suum  numerum  non  compleverunt,  quod  se 
suo  nomine  cum  Romanis  bellum  gesturos  dice- 
rent,  the  Bellovaci  did  not  furnish  their  complement , 


Syntax . 


1 86 

because  they  said  they  were  going  to  wage  war  with  the 
Romans  on  their  own  account. 

b.  Non  quod,  non  quo  (by  attraction  for  non  eo  quod),  non 
quia,  not  that,  not  because ;  and  non  quod  non,  non  quo 
non,  non  quin,  not  that  .  .  .  not ;  not  because  .  .  .  not ; 
not  but  that,  are  usually  employed  merely  to  introduce  a 
hypothetical  reason,  and  hence  take  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

id  feci,  non  quod  vos  hanc  defensionem  deslderare 
arbitrarer,  sed  ut  omnes  intellegerent,  this  /  did , 
not  because  I  thought  you  needed  this  defense,  but  that 
all  might  perceive ; 

Crasso  commendationem  non  sum  pollicitus,  non  quin 
earn  valituram  apud  te  arbitrarer,  sed  egere  mihi 
commendatione  n5n  videbatur,  I  did  not  promise  a 
reco7nmendation  to  Crassus,  not  that  I  did  not  think  it 
woidd  have  weight  with  you ,  but  because  he  did  not  seem 
to  me  to  need  recommendation. 

c.  But  clauses  introduced  by  non  quod,  non  quia  take  the 
Indicative  if  they  state  a  fact ,  even  though  that  fact  is  denied 
to  be  the  reason  for  something ;  as,  — 

hoc  ita  sentio,  non  quia  sum  ipse  augur,  sed  quia  sic 
exlstimare  nos  est  necesse,  this  /  think ,  not  because  / 
am  myself  an  augur  ( 'which  I  really  am) ,  but  because  it 
is  necessary  for  us  to  think  so. 

2.  Cum  causal  regularly  takes  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

cum  sis  mortalis,  quae  mortalia  sunt,  cura,  since  you  are  mortal, 

care  for  what  is  mortal. 

a.  Note  the  phrase  cum  praesertim  (praesertim  cum), 

especially  si?ice ;  as,  — 

Haeduos  accusat,  praesertim  cum  eorum  precibus  ad- 
ductus  bellum  susceperit,  he  blamed  the  Haedui , 
especially  since  he  had  undertaken  th~  war  at  their 
entreaties. 

3.  Quando  (less  frequent  than  the  other  causal  particles)  governs 
the  Indicative;  as, — 

id  omitto,  quando  vobls  ita  placet,  I  pass  over  that ,  since  you  so 

wish. 


Clauses  with  Postquam,  Ubi,  etc. 


187 


Temporal  Clauses  introduced  by  Postquam,  Ut,  Ubi, 

Simul  a c,  etc. 

287.  I.  Postquam  (posteaquam),  after;  ut,  ubi,  when; 
cum  prlmum,  simul,  simul  ac  (simul  atque),  as  soon  as,  when 
used  to  refer  to  a  single  past  act  regularly  take  the  Perfect 
Indicative ;  as,  — 

Epamlnondas  postquam  audlvit  vlcisse  Boeotios,  1  Satis  1  inquit 
‘  vlxl,’  Epaminondas,  after  he  heard  that  the  Boeotians  had  con¬ 
quered,  said,  1 1  have  lived  enough ;  ’ 
id  ut  audlvit,  Corcyram  demigravit,  when  he  heard  this ,  he  moved 
to  Corcyra ; 

Caesar  cum  prlmum  potuit,  ad  exercitum  contendit,  Caesar,  as 
soon  as  he  coidd,  hurried  to  the  army ; 
ubi  de  Caesaris  adventu  certiores  fact!  sunt,  legatos  ad  eum 
mittunt,  when  they  were  informed  of  Caesar1  s  arrival,  they 
sent  envoys  to  him. 

a.  The  Historical  Present  may  take  the  place  of  the  Perfect  in  this  con¬ 
struction. 

r 

2.  To  denote  the  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act,  ut,  ubi,  simul 
atque,  as  ofte?i  as,  when  following  an  historical  tense,  take  the  Plu¬ 
perfect  Indicative  (compare  §§  288,  3  ;  302,  3)  ;  as,  — 

ut  quisque  Verris  animum  offenderat,  in  lautumias  statim  coni- 
ciebatur,  whenever  anybody  had  offended  Verres1s  feelings,  he 
was  forthwith  put  in  the  stone-quarry ; 
hostes,  ubi  aliquos  egredientes  conspexerant,  adoriebantur, 

whenever  the  enemy  had  seen  any  men  disembarking,  they 
attacked  them. 

a.  In  Livy  and  succeeding  historians  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Sub¬ 
junctive  are  used  to  denote  this  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act  (‘  Indefi¬ 
nite  Frequency  ’)  ;  as, — 

id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat,  whenever  he  had  said  that ,  he 
hurled  a  spear. 

3.  Occasionally  the  above  conjunctions  are  followed  by  the  Pluper¬ 
fect  Indicative  of  a  single  occurrence.  This  is  regularly  the  case  with 
postquam  in  expressions  denoting  a  definite  interval  of  time  (days, 
months,  years,  etc.),  such  as  post  tertium  annum  quam,  triennio 
postquam.  Thus:  — 


1 88 


Syntax . 


qulnque  post  diebus  quam  Luca  discesserat,  ad  Sardiniam  venit, 

five  days  after  he  had  departed  from  Luca  he  came  to  Sar¬ 
dinia  ; 

postquam  occupatae  Syracusae  erant,  profectus  est  Cartha* 

ginem,  after  Syracuse  had  been  seized \  he  set  out  for  Carthage. 

4.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  also  sometimes  occurs  to  denote  a  continued 
state  ;  as,  — 

postquam  Romam  adventabant,  senatus  cSnsultus  est,  afler  they  were 

07i  the  77iarch  towards  Rome ,  the  Senate  was  consulted; 

postquam  struct!  utrimque  stabant,  after  they  had  been  drawn  up  on  both 

sides  and  were  hi  position. 

5.  Rarely  postquam,  posteaquam,  following  the  analogy  of  cum,  take 
the  Subjunctive,  but  only  in  the  historical  tenses;  as, — 

posteaquam  sumptuosa  fieri  funera  coepissent,  lege  sublata  sunt, 

after  funerals  had  begun  to  be  elaborate ,  they  were  done  away  with  by  law . 

Temporal  Clauses  introduced  by  Cum. 

A.  Cum  REFERRING  TO  THE  PAST. 

288.  i.  Cum,  when  referring  to  the  past,  takes  — 

A.  The  Indicative  (Imperfect,  Historical  Perfect,  or 
Pluperfect)  to  denote  the  point  of  time  at  which  something 
occurs. 

B.  The  Subjunctive  (Imperfect  or  Pluperfect)  to  de¬ 
note  the  situation  or  circumstances  under  which  something 
occurs. 

Examples :  — 

Indicative. 

an  turn  eras  consul,  cum  in  Palatio  mea  domus  ardebat,  or  were 

you  consul  at  the  time  when  my  house  burned  tip  on  the  Palatine  t 
credo  turn  cum  Sicilia  fldrebat  opibus  et  copils  magna  artificia 
fuisse  in  ea  insula,  I  believe  that  at  the  time  when  Sicily  was 
Powerful  in  riches  and  resources  there  were  great  crafts  in  that 
island ; 

eo  tempore  paruit  cum  parere  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  at  the  time 

when  it  was  necessary  to  obey ; 

illo  die,  cum  est  lata  lex  de  me,  on  that  day  when  the  law  concern - 
ing  me  was  passed. 


Cum  -Clauses. 


189 


Subjunctive. 

Lysander  cum  vellet  LycurgI  leges  commutare,  prohibitus  est, 

when  Lysander  desired  to  change  the  laws  of  Lycurgus ,  he  was 
prevented : 

Pythagoras  cum  in  geometria  quiddam  novi  invenisset,  Musis 
bovem  immolasse  dicitur,  when  Pythagoras  had  discovered 
something  new  in  geometry ,  he  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  an  ox  to 
the  Muses. 

a.  Note  that  the  Indicative  is  much  less  frequent  in  such  clauses 
than  the  Subjunctive,  and  is  regularly  confined  to  those  cases 
where  the  main  clause  has  turn,  eo  die,  eo  anno,  eo  tem¬ 
pore  or  some  similar  correlative  of  the  cum.  Sometimes  it 
depends  entirely  upon  the  point  of  view  of  the  writer  whether 
he  shall  employ  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive. 

2.  When  the  logical  order  of  the  clauses  is  inverted,  we  find  cum 
with  the  Perfect  Indicative  or  Historical  Present,  in  the  sense  of  when , 
when  suddenly.  The  main  clause  in  such  cases  often  has  jam,  vix, 
aegre,  nondum  ;  as,  — 

jam  Galll  ex  oppido  fugere  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae 
repente  procurrerunt,  the  Gauls  were  already  preparing  to 
flee ,  when  suddenly  the  matrons  rushed  forth  (logically,  the  ma¬ 
trons  rushed  forth  as  the  Gauls  were  preparing  to  flee')  ; 

Treviri  Labienum  adorlrl  parabant,  cum  duas  legiones  venisse 
cognoscunt,  the  Treviri  were  preparing  to  attack ,  when  ( sud¬ 
denly )  they  learned  that  two  legions  had  arrived. 

3.  To  denote  a  recur  ring  action  in  the  past,  cum  is  followed  by  the  In¬ 
dicative,  particularly  of  the  Pluperfect  (compare  §§  287,  2  ;  302,  3)  ;  as,  — 

cum  ad  aliquod  oppidum  venerat,  eadem  lectlca  ad  cubiculum 
deferebatur,  whenever  he  had  arrived  at  some  town ,  he  was 
0 always )  carried  in  the  same  litter  to  his  room  ; 
cum  equitatus  noster  se  in  agros  ejecerat,  essedarios  ex  silvls 
emittebat,  whenever  our  cavalry  had  advanced  into  the  fields , 
he  would  send  his  charioteers  out  from  the  woods. 

a.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  is  thus  used;  as, — 

saepe  cum  aliquem  videret  minus  bene  vestitum,  suum 
amiculum  dedit,  often ,  -whenever  he  saw  some  one  more  poorly 
clothed ,  he  gave  him  his  own  mantte  ; 
cum  procucurrissent,  Numidae  effug-iebant,  as  often  as  they 
had  advanced,  the  Numidians  ran  away. 

This  construction  is  frequent  in  Livy  and  subsequent  historians. 


Syntax. 


190 


B.  Cum  REFERRING  TO  THE  PRESENT  OR  FUTURE. 

289.  When  cum  refers  to  the  Present  or  Future  it  regu¬ 
larly  takes  the  Indicative  ;  as,  — 

turn  tua  res  agitur,  paries  cum  proximus  ardet ,your  own  interests 

are  at  stake  when  your  neighbor'' s  house  is  burning ; 
cum  videbis,  turn  scies,  when  you  see ,  then  you  will  know. 

a.  The  Indicative  of  the  Present  or  Future  may  denote  also  a  recurring 
action  ;  as,  — ■ 

stabilitas  amicitiae  cdnflrmarl  potest,  cum  homines  cu- 
pidinibus  imperabunt,  firm  friendship  can  be  established 
whenever  men  shall  control  their  desires. 

C.  Other  Uses  of  Cum. 

290.  I.  Cum  Explicative.  Cum,  with  the  Indicative,  is  some¬ 
times  used  to  indicate  the  identity  of  one  act  with  another ;  as,  — 

cum  tacent,  clamant,  their  silence  is  a  shout  (lit.  when  they  are 
silent ,  they  shout). 

2.  Cum  .  .  .  turn.  When  cum  .  .  .  turn  mean  both  .  .  .  and , 
the  cum-clause  is  in  the  Indicative;  but  when  cum  has  the  force  of 
while ,  though ,  it  may  take  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 

cum  te  semper  dllexerim,  turn  tuls  factls  incensus  sum,  while  I 
have  always  loved  you ,  at  the  same  time  I  am  incensed  at 
your  conduct. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Antequam  and  Priusquam. 

A.  With  the  Indicative. 

291.  Antequam  and  priusquam  (often  written  ante  .  .  . 
quam,  prius  .  .  .  quam)  take  the  Indicative  to  denote  an 

actual  fact. 

1.  Sometimes  the  Present  or  Future  Perfect ;  as, — 

prius  respondes  quam  rogo ,  you  answer  before  I  ask  ; 

nihil  contra  disputabo  priusquam  dlxerit,  I  will  say  nothing  iti 

opposition ,  before  he  speaks. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Perfect,  especially  after  negative  clauses;  as, — 
non  prius  jugulandl  finis  fuit,  quam  Sulla  omnes  suos  divitils 

explevit,  there  was  no  end  of  murder  until  Sulla  satisfied  all 
his  henchmen  with  wealth. 


Clauses  with  Dum,  Donee,  etc.  191 

« 

B.  With  the  Subjunctive. 

292.  Antequam  and  priusquam  take  the  Subjunctive  to 
denote  an  act  as  anticipated. 

1.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  may  denote — • 

a)  An  act  in  preparation  for  which  the  main  act  takes  place ;  as, — 

priusquam  dlmicarent,  foedus  Ictum  est,  i.e.  in  anticipa¬ 
tion  of  the  fight ,  a  treaty  was  struck. 

By  an  extension  of  this  usage,  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  of  general 
truths,  where  the  anticipatory  notion  has  faded  out ;  as,  — 

tempestas  minatur  antequam  surgat,  the  tempest  threatens  before  it  rises. 

b)  An  act  anticipated  and  forestalled  ;  as,  — 

priusquam  telum  adicl  posset,  omnis  acies  terga  vertit, 

before  a  spear  could  be  hurled \  the  whole  army  fled. 

c )  An  act  anticipated  and  deprecated  ;  as,  — 

animum  omittunt  priusquam  loco  demigrent,  they  die 
rather  tha?i  quit  their  post. 

2.  After  historical  tenses  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  used,  espe¬ 
cially  by  post-Augustan  writers,  where  the  notion  of  anticipation  has 
practically  vanished  ;  as, — 

sol  antequam  se  abderet  fugientem  vldit  Antonium,  the  sun  before 
it  set  saw  Antotiy  fleeing. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Dum,  Donee,  Quoad. 

293.  I.  Dum,  while ,  regularly  takes  the  Indicative  of 
the  Historical  Present ;  as,  — 

Alexander,  dum  inter  prlmores  pugnat,  sagitta  Ictus  est,  Alex¬ 
ander,  while  he  was  fighting  in  the  van,  was  struck  by  an  arrow ; 
dum  haec  geruntur,  in  fines  Venellorum  pervenit,  while  these 
things  were  being  done,  he  arrived  in  the  territory  of  the  Venelli. 

II.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  as  long  as,  take  the  Indica¬ 
tive;  as, — 

dum  anima  est,  spes  est,  as  long  as  there  is  life,  there  is  hope ; 
Lacedaemoniorum  gens  fortis  fuit,  dum  LycurgI  leges  vigebant, 

the  race  of  the  Lacedaemonians  was  powerful,  as  long  as  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus  were  in  force  ; 

Cato,  quoad  vlxit,  virtutum  laude  crevit,  Cato,  as  long  as  he  lived, 
increased  in  the  fame  of  his  virtues - 


192 


Syntax. 


III.  Dum,  donee;  and  quoad,  until ,  take:  — 

1.  The  Indicative,  to  denote  an  actual  event ;  as, — 

donee  rediit,  fuit  silentium,  there  was  silence  till  he  came ; 
ferrum  in  corpore  retinuit,  quoad  renuntiatum  est  Boeotios 
vicisse,  he  kept  the  iron  in  his  body  until  word  was  brought  that 
the  Boeotians  had  conquered. 

a.  In  Livy  and  subsequent  historians  dum  and  donee  in  this  sense  often 
take  the  Subjunctive  instead  of  the  Indicative;  as, — 

trepidationis  aliquantum  edebant  donee  timor  quietem 
fecisset,  they  showed  some  trepidation ,  until  fear  produced  quiet. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  to  denote  anticipation  or  expec¬ 
tancy  ;  as,  — 

exspectavit  Caesar  dum  naves  convenlrent,  Caesar  waited for  the 
ships  to  assetnble ; 

dum  hostes  veniant,  morabor,  I  shall  wait  for  the  enemy  to  come. 

Substantive  Clauses. 

294.  A  Substantive  Clause  is  one  which  as  a  whole 
serves  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  a  verb,  or  stands  in  some 
other  case  relation. 

A.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Volitive. 

295.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Volitive 
are  used  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs :  — 

1.  With  verbs  signifying  to  admonish,  request ,  command,  tirge,  per¬ 
suade,  induced  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or  ut  ne)  ;  as, — 

postulo  ut  flat,  /  dematid  that  it  be  done  (dependent  form  of  the 
Jussive  fiat,  let  it  be  done  l')  ; 
orat,  ne  abeas,  he  begs  that  you  will  not  go  away ; 

milites  cohortatus  est  ut  hostium  impetum  sustinerent,  he  ex¬ 
horted  his  soldiers  to  withstand  the  attack  of  the  enemy ; 
Helvetils  persuasit  ut  exirent,  he  persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  tnarch 
forth. 

a.  Jubeo,  command,  order ,  regularly  takes  the  Infinitive. 

1  Especially:  moneo,  admoneo ;  Tog'S.  5r5.  peto,  postulS,  precor, 
flagito;  mandS,  impero,  praecipio;  suadeo,  hortor,  cohortor;  per¬ 
suaded,  impelld. 


Substantive  Clauses . 


193 


2.  With  verbs  signifying  to  grant,  concede ,  permit ,  allow?  etc.  (con¬ 
junction  ut)  ;  as,  — 

huic  concedo  ut  ea  praetereat,  I  allow  him  to  pass  that  by  (depend¬ 
ent  form  of  the  Jussive  ea  praetereat,  let  him  pass  that  by !)  ; 
consul!  permissum  est  ut  duas  legiones  scrlberet,  the  consul  was 
permitted  to  etiroll  two  legions. 

3.  With  verbs  of  hindering ,  preventing ?  etc.  (conjunctions  ne, 

quominus,  quin)  ;  as,  — 

lie  lustrum  perficeret,  mors  prohibuit,  death  preve?ited  him  from 
finishing  the  lustrum  (dependent  form  after  past  tense  of  ne 
lustrum  perficiat,  let  him  not  finish ,  etc.)  ; 
prohibuit  quominus  in  unum  colrent,  he  preve?ited  them  from  com- 
ing  together ; 

nec  quin  erumperet,  prohiberl  poterat,  nor  coidd  he  be  prevented 
fro7n  rushing forth . 

a.  Quin  is  used  only  when  the  verb  of  hindering  is  accompanied  by  a 
negative,  or  stands  in  a  question  implying  a  negative ;  it  is  not  neces¬ 
sarily  used  even  then. 

4.  With  verbs  of  deciding ,  resolving?  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or 

ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 

constitueram  ut  prldie  Idus  Aqulnl  manerem,  /  had  decided  to 
remain  at  Aquinum  on  the  1 2 th  ; 

decrevit  senatus  ut  Oplmius  videret,  the  Senate  decreed  that  Opi- 
mius  should  see  to  it ; 

convenit  ut  unis  castrls  miscerentur,  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 
be  united  in  one  camp. 

5.  With  verbs  of  striving?  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or  ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 

fac  ut  eum  exores,  see  to  it  that  you  prevail  upon  him! 
cura  ut  vir  sis,  see  to  it  that  you  are  a  ma?i ! 

laborabat  ut  reliquas  clvitates  adjungeret,  he  was  striving  to  join 
the  remaining  states  to  him. 

a.  Cdnor,  try ,  always  takes  the  Infinitive. 

Note.  —  Verbs  of  all  the  above  classes  also  admit  the  Infinitive,  especially  in 
poetry. 


1  Especially:  permittS,  concedd,  n5n  patior. 

2  Especially:  prohibed,  impedid,  deterred. 

3  Especially :  constitud,  decerno,  censed,  placuit,  convenit,  paciscor, 

4  Especially:  laboro,  do  operam,  id  ago,  contendo,  impetro. 


194 


Syntax. 


6.  With  a  few  other  expressions,  such  as  necesse  est,  reliquum 
est,  sequitur,  licet,  oportet;  as, — 

reliquum  est  ut  doceam,  it  remains  for  me  to  show ; 
licet  redeas,  yo7i  may  return ; 
oportet  loquamur,  we  must  speak. 

On  the  absence  of  ut  with  licet  and  oportet,  see  paragraph  8. 

j.  Here  also  belong  phrases  of  the  type :  nulla  causa  est  cur, 
quin  ;  non  est  cur,  etc. ;  nihil  est  cur,  etc. ;  as,  — 

nulla  causa  est  cur  timeam,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  fear 
(originally  Deliberative  :  why  should  I fear  ?  There''  s  no  reason}  ; 
nihil  est  quin  dicam,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  not  say. 

8.  Many  of  the  above  classes  of  verbs  at  times  take  the  simple  Sub¬ 
junctive  without  ut.  In  such  cases  we  must  not  recognize  any  omis¬ 
sion  of  ut,  but  simply  an  earlier  form  of  expression  which  existed 
before  the  ut-clause  arose.  This  is  regularly  the  case  with  necesse 
est,  licet,  and  oportet ;  see  6.  Other  examples  are:  — 

eos  moneo  desinant,  I  warn  them  to  stop ; 

huic  imperat  adeat  civitates,  he  orders  him  to  visit  the  states. 

B.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Optative. 

296.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Optative 
occur :  — • 

1 .  With  verbs  of  wishing ,  desiring,  especially  cupid,  opto,  volo, 
malo  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 

opto  ut  in  hoc  judicio  nemo  improbus  reperiatur,  I  hope  that  in 
this  court  no  bad  man  may  be  found  (here  ut  reperiatur  repre¬ 
sents  a  simple  optative  of  direct  statement,  viz.  reperiatur,  may 
7io  bad  77ia7i  be  found!}  ; 

cupio  ne  veniat,  I  desirs  that  h*  may  7iot  C07?ie. 

a.  The  simple  Subjunctive  (without  ut)  sometimes  occurs  with  verbs  of 
this  class.  (See  §  295,  8.)  Examples  are:  velim  scribas,  I  wish 
you  would  write ;  vellem  scripsisset,  I  wish  he  had  written. 

2.  With  expressions  of  fearing  (timeo,  metuo,  vereor,  etc.). 
Here  ne  means  that ,  lest ,  and  ut  means  that  not ;  as, — 

timed  ne  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  come  (originally  :  may  he  7iot  come ! 
Pm  afraid  Jie  will~\  ) ; 

timed  ut  veniat,  / fear  that  he  will  not  come  (originally  :  may  he  cornel 
Pm  afraid  [he  won't ]  ) . 


Substantive  Clauses . 


195 


a.  Ne  n5n  sometimes  occurs  instead  of  ut,  especially  where  the  verb  of 
fearing  has  a  negative,  or  where  the  writer  desires  to  emphasize  some 
particular  word  in  the  dependent  clause ;  as,  — 

non  vereor  ne  hoc  n5n  fiat,  I  am  not  afraid  that  this  will  not 
happen  ; 

vereor  ne  exercitum  firmum  habere  non  possit,  /  fear  that 
he  is  unable  (non  possit)  to  have  a  strong  army. 

C.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result. 

297.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  (introduced  by  ut, 
ut  non)  are  a  development  of  pure  Result  clauses,  and 
occur  with  the  following  classes  of  words  :  — 

1.  As  object  clauses  after  verbs  of  doing ,  accomplishing  (especially 

faci5,  efficio,  conficio).  Thus  :  — 

gravitas  morbl  facit  ut  mediclna  egeamus,  the  severity  of  disease 
makes  us  need  medicine. 

2.  As  the  subject  of  several  impersonal  verbs,  particularly  fit,  effici- 
tur,  accidit,  evenit,  contingit,  accedit,  fieri  potest,  fore,  sequitur, 
relinquitur.  Thus :  — 

ex  quo  efficitur,  ut  voluptas  non  sit  summum  bonum,  from  which 
it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  greatest  good ; 
ita  fit,  ut  nemo  esse  possit  beatus,  thus  it  happens  that  no  one  can 
be  happy ; 

accedebat  ut  naves  deessent,  another  thing  was  the  lack  of  ships 
(lit.  it  was  added  that  ships  were  lacking). 

3.  As  predicate  or  appositive  after  expressions  like  jus  est,  mos 
est,  cSnsuetudo  est ;  also  after  neuter  pronouns,  hoc,  illud,  etc. 
Thus :  — 

est  mos  hominum  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribus  rebus  excellere, 

it  is  the  way  of  men  not  to  wish  the  same  person  to  excel  in 
many  things. 

D.  Substantive  Clauses  Introduced  by  Quin. 

298.  Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  quin  (used  some¬ 
times  as  subject,  sometimes  as  object)  occur  after  negative 
and  interrogative  expressions  of  doubt ,  omission ,  and  the 
like,  particularly  after  non  dubito,  I  do  not  doubt ;  quia 


196 


Syntax. 


dubitat,  w ho  doubts  t  ;  non  (haud)  dubium  est,  there  IS  no 
doubt.  The  mood  is  the  Subjunctive.  Examples  :  — 

quis  dubitat  quin  in  virtute  dlvitiae  sint,  who  doubts  that  in  virtue 

there  are  riches  f 

non  dubium  erat  quin  venturus  esset,  there  was  no  doubt  that  he 

was  about  to  coine. 

a.  In  Nepos,  Livy,  and  post-Augustan  writers  an  Infinitive  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  the  quin-clause  after  non  dubito  ;  as, — 

non  dubitamus  inventSs  esse,  we  do  not  doubt  that  men  were  found . 

b.  N5n  dubitS,  /  do  not  hesitate,  is  regularly  followed  by  the  Infinitive, 
though  sometimes  by  a  quin-clause. 

E.  Substantive  Clauses  Introduced  by  Quod. 

299.  1.  Quod,  the  fact  that ,  that ,  introduces  Substan¬ 
tive  Clauses  in  the  Indicative.  This  construction  occurs 
especially  — 

a)  In  apposition  with  a  preceding  demonstrative,  as  hoc,  id,  ' 

illud,  ilia,  ex  eo,  inde,  etc.  Thus  :  — ■ 

A 

illud  est  admiratione  dignum,  quo'd  captlvos  retinen- 

dos  censuit,  this  is  especially  worthy  of  admiration , 
that  he  thought  the  prisoners  ought  to  be  kept ; 

hoc  uno  praestamus  vel  maxime  ferls,  quod  colloqui- 
mur  inter  nos,  in  this  one  respect  we  are  especially 
superior  to  the  beasts ,  that  we  talk  with  each  other. 

b )  After  bene  fit,  bene  accidit,  male  fit,  bene  facere,  mlror, 

etc. ;  as,  — 

bene  mihi  accidit,  quod  mittor  ad  mortem,  it  is  well  for 

me  that  /  am  sent  to  death  ; 

bene  fecistl  quod  mansistl,  you  did  well  in  remaining. 

2.  Quod  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  sometimes  has  the  force 
of  as  regards  the  fact  that.  Thus  :  — 

quod  multitudinem  Germanorum  in  Galliam  traduco,  id  mel 
muniendl  causa  facio,  as  regards  the  fact  that  I  am  trans¬ 
porting  a  midtitude  of  Germans  into  Gaul,  I  am  doing  it  for 
the  sake  of  strengthening  myself ; 

quod  me  Agamemnona  aemularl  putas,  falleris,  as  regards  your 
thinking  that  I  evmlate  Agamemnon,  you  are  mistaken. 


Substantive  Clauses. 


197 


F.  Indirect  Questions. 

300.  1.  Indirect  Questions  are  Substantive  Clauses  used 
after  verbs  of  asking ,  inquiring,  telling,  and  the  like.  They 
take  their  verb  in  the  Subjunctive.1  Like  Direct  Questions 
(see  §  162)  they  may  be  introduced  — 

a)  By  Interrogative  Pronouns  or  Adverbs  ;  as,  — 

die  mihi  ubi  fueris,  quid  fecerls,  tell  me  where  you  were , 
what  you  aid ; 

oculis  judicari  non  potest  in  utram  partem  fluat  Arar, 

it  cannot  be  determined  by  the  eye  in  which  direction  tiie 
Arar  flows  \ ; 

bis  bina  quot  essent,  nesciebat,  he  did  not  know  how 
7na7iy  two  ti77ies  two  were. 

Note.  —  Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  Indirect  Questions 
from  Relative  Clauses.  The  difference  between  the  two  appears  clearly 
in  the  following  :  — 

effugere  nemo  id  potest  quod  futurum  est,  710  o>ie  can  escape  what 
is  destined  to  C07ne  to  pass  ;  but 

saepe  autem  ne  utile  quidem  est  scire  quid  futurum  sit,  but  often 
it  is  71  ot  even  useful  to  know  what  is  comuig  to  pass. 

b)  By  num  or  -ne,  without  distinction  of  meaning  ;  as, — 
Epamlnondas  quaesivit  num  salvus  esset  clipeus,  or 

salvusne  esset  clipeus,  Epanii7i07idas  asked  whether 
his  shield  was  safe ; 

disputatur  num  interire  virtus  in  homine  possit,  the 

question  is  raised  whether  virtue  can  die  i7i  a  7Jia7i ; 
ex  Socrate  quaesitum  est  nonne  Archelaum  beatum 
putaret,  the  question  was  asked  of  Socrates  whether  he 
did  71  ot  think  Archela7is  happy. 

Note.  —  Nonne  in  Indirect  Questions  occurs  only  after  quaerd,  as  in  the 
last  example  above. 

2.  Often  the  Indirect  Question  represents  a  Deliberative  Subjunctive 
of  the  direct  discourse  ;  as,  — 

nescio  quid  faciam,  /  do  not  k7iow  what  to  do.  (Direct :  quid  faciam, 
what  shall  I  do  !) 


1  Exclamations,  also,  upon  becoming  indirect,  take  the  Subjunctive,  as  edn- 
sldera  quam  variae  sint  hominum  cupldines,  consider  how  varied  are  the 
desires  of  men.  (Direct:  quam  variae  sunt  hominum  cupldines ! ) 


igS 


Syntax. 


3.  After  verbs  of  expectation  and  endeavor  (exspecto,  Conor, 
experior,  tempto)  we  sometimes  find  an  Indirect  Question  intro¬ 
duced  by  si  ;  as,  — 

conantur  si  perrumpere  possint,  they  try  whether  they  can  break 

through. 

a.  Sometimes  the  governing  verb  is  omitted  ;  as,  — 

perg-it  ad  proximam  speluncam  si  forte  eo  vestigia  fer- 
rent,  he  proceeded  to  the  nearest  cave  {to  see )  if  the  tracks  led 
thither. 


4.  Indirect  Double  Questions  are  introduced  in  the  main  by  the 
same  particles  as  direct  double  questions  (§  162,  4)  ;  viz. :  — 


utrum  ...  an ; 

-ne . an ; 

- -  ....  an ; 

'  •  •  •  •  116  • 

Examples :  — 


quaero  utrum  verum  an  falsum  sit,' 
quaero  verumne  an  falsum  sit, 
quaero  verum  an  falsum  sit, 
quaero  verum  falsumne  sit, 


I  ask  whether  it  is  true  or  false  ? 


a.  * Or  not'  in  the  second  member  of  the  double  question  is  ordinarily 
expressed  by  necne,  less  frequently  by  an  n5n  ;  as,  — 

dl  utrum  sint  necne,  quaeritur,  it  is  asked  whether  there  are  gods 
or  not. 


5.  Haud  scio  an,  nescio  an,  by  omission  of  the  first  member  of 
the  double  question,  occur  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the  sense :  I  am 
inclined  to  think ,  probably ,  perhaps  ;  as,  — 

haud  scio  an  hoc  verum  sit,  I  am  inclined  to  think  this  is  true. 


6.  In  early  Latin  and  in  poetry  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in 
Indirect  Questions. 

CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


301.  Conditional  Sentences  are  compound  sentences 
(§  164)  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  Protasis  (or  con¬ 
dition ),  usually  introduced  by  si,  nisi,  or  sin,  and  the 
Apodosis  (or  conclusion).  There  are  the  following  types 
of  Conditional  Sentences  :  — 


Conditional  Sentences. 


199 


First  Type.  —  Nothing  Implied  as  to  the  Reality  of  the  Sup. 

posed  Case. 

302.  1.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Indicative  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis.  Any  tense  may  be  used  ;  as,  — 

si  hoc  credis,  erras,  if  you  believe  this ,  you  are  mistaken  ; 

naturam  si  sequemur,  numquam  aberrabimus,  if  we  follow 
Nature ,  we  shall  never  go  astray ; 
si  h5c  dlxistl,  errastl,  if  you  said  this ,  you  were  in  error. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Protasis  takes  the  Indefinite  Second  Person  Singu- 
lar  (§  356,  3)  of  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  with  the  force  of 
the  Indicative  ;  as, — 

memoria  minuitur,  nisi  earn  exerceas,  memory  is  impaired  tin  less 
you  exercise  it. 

3.  Here  belong  also  those  conditional  sentences  in  which  the  Prot¬ 
asis  denotes  a  repeated  action  (compare  §§  287,  2  ;  288,  3)  ;  as, — 

si  quis  equitum  deciderat,  pedites  circumsistebant,  if  any  one 

of  the  horsemen  fell ,  the  foot-soldiers  gathered  about  him. 

a.  Instead  of  the  Indicative,  Livy  and  subsequent  writers  employ  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  Historical  tenses  in  the  Protasis  to  denote  repeated 
action;  as, —  ' 

Sl  dicendo  quis  diem  eximeret,  if  {ever)  anybody  consumed  a  day 
in  pleading  ;  si  quando  adsideret,  if  ever  he  sat  by. 

4.  Where  the  sense  demands  it,  the  Apodosis  in  conditional  sen¬ 
tences  of  the  First  Type  may  be  an  Imperative  or  one  of  the  Inde¬ 
pendent  Subjunctives  (Hortatory,  Deliberative,  etc.);  as, — 

si  hoc  creditis,  tacete,  if  you  believe  this ,  be  silent ; 

si  hoc  credimus,  taceamus,  if  we  believe  this ,  let  us  keep  silent. 

Second  Type.  —  ‘  Should  ’-‘Would  ’  Conditions. 

303.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  (of  the  Pres¬ 
ent  or  Perfect  tense)  in  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis  ;  as, — 

si  hoc  dlcas,  erres,  j  if  you  should  say  this ,  you  would  be  mis - 

si  hoc  dlxerls,  erraverls,  J  taken. 

si  velim  Hannibalis  proelia  omnia  descrlbere,  dies  me  deficiat, 

if  /  should  wish  to  describe  all  the  battles  of  Hannibal ,  time 
would  fail  me ; 


200 


Syntax. 


mentiar,  si  negem,  I  should  lie ,  if  I  should  deny  it ; 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your 

country  shoidd  plead  thus  with  you ,  woidd  she  not  deserve  to 
obtain  her  request  t 

a.  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  of  this  type 
is  of  the  Potential  variety. 

b.  Sometimes  we  find  the  Indicative  in  the  Apodosis  of  sentences  of  the 
Second  Type,  where  the  writer  wishes  to  assert  the  accomplishment  oi 
a  result  more  positively ;  as, — 

aliter  si  faciat,  nullam  habet  auctoritatem,  if  he  should  do 

otherwise ,  he  has  no  authority. 

Third  Type.  —  Supposed  Case  Represented  as  Contrary  to 

Fact. 

304.  i.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis,  the  Imperfect  referring  to  pixsent 
time ,  and  the  Pluperfect  referring  to  past ;  as, — 

si  amici  mel  adessent,  opis  non  indigerem,  if  my  friends  were  here , 

/  shoidd  not  lack  assistance ; 

si  hoc  dixisses,  errasses,  if  you  had  said  this ,  you  would  have 

erred ; 

sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  philosophy  would  not 
be  desired ,  if  it  accomplished  nothing ; 
consilium,  ratio,  sententia  nisi  essent  in  senibus,  non  summum 
consilium  majores  nostrl  appellassent  senatum,  unless  de¬ 
liberation ,  reason ,  and  wisdom  existed  in  old  men ,  our  ances¬ 
tors  would  not  have  called  their  highest  deliberative  body  a 
senate. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  found  referring  to  the 
past,  especially  to  denote  a  continued  act ,  or  a  state  of  things  still  exist¬ 
ing ;  as,— 

Laelius,  Furius,  Cato,  si  nihil  litterls  adjuvarentur,  numquam  se 
ad  earum  studium  contulissent,  Laelius ,  Furius ,  and  Cato 
would  never  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  letters , 
unless  they  had  been  {constantly')  helped  by  them ; 
mim  igitur  si  ad  centesimum  annum  vlxisset,  senectutis  eum 
suae  paeniteret,  if  he  had  lived  to  his  hundredth  year , 
would  he  have  regretted  {and  now  be  regretting)  his  old 
agef 


Conditional  Sentences. 


201 


3.  The  Apodosis  in  conditional  sentences  of  this  type  sometimes 
stands  in  the  Indicative  (Imperfect,  Perfect,  or  Pluperfect),  viz.  — 

a)  Frequently  in  expressions  of  ability,  obligation ,  or  necessity ; 

as, — 

nisi  fellcitas  in  socordiam  vertisset,  exuere  jugum 
potuerunt,  unless  their  prosperity  had  turned  to  folly , 
they  coidd  have  thrown  off  the  yoke ; 

NOTE.  —  In  sentences  of  this  type,  however,  it  is  not  the  possibility  that  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  contrary-to-fact,  but  something  to  be  supplied  in  thought  from  the  context. 
Thus  in  the  foregoing  sentence  the  logical  apodosis  is  et  exuissent  understood 
( and  they  would  have  shaken  it  off).  When  the  possibility  itself  is  conditioned,  the 

Subjunctive  is  used. 

eum  patris  loco  colere  debebas,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas 
esset,  you  ought  to  revere  him  as  a  father ,  if  you  had 
any  setts  e  of  devotion. 

b )  With  both  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations;  as, — • 

si  Pompejus  occlsus  esset,  fuistisne  ad  arma  iturl,  if 

Pompey  had  been  slain ,  would  you  have  proceeded  to 
arms  f 

si  unum  diem  moratl  essetis,  moriendum  omnibus 
fuit,  if  y ou  had  delayed  one  day ,  you  would  all  have 
had  to  die.  4 

Protasis  expressed  without  Si. 

305.  1.  The  Protasis  is  not  always  expressed  by  a  clause  with  si, 
but  may  be  implied  in  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  merely  by  the  context; 

as,  — 

alioqul  haec  non  scrlberentur,  otherwise  (i.e.  if  matters  were  other¬ 
wise)  these  things  would  not  be  written  ; 
non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dlrigentes,  retin  ere  virtutem,  you 

cannot  retain  virtue,  if  you  direct  everything  with  reference  to 
pleasure. 

2.  Sometimes  an  Imperative,  or  a  Jussive  Subjunctive,  serves  as 
Protasis.  Thus :  — 

eras  petito,  dabitur,  if  you  ask  to-morrow,  it  shall  be  given  you  (lit. 
ask  to-morrow ,  etc.)  ; 

haec  reputent,  videbunt,  if  they  consider  this ,  they  will  see  (lit.  let 
them  consider ,  etc.)  ; 

roges  Aristonem,  respondeat,  if  you  should  ask  Aristo ,  he  would 
answer. 


202 


/ 


Syntax. 


Use  of  Nisi ,  Si  Non ,  -SI22. 

306.  1.  Nisi,  unless ,  negatives  the  entire  protasis ;  si  non  nega¬ 
tives  a  single  word  ;  as,  — 

ferreus  essem,  nisi  te  amarem,  /  should  be  hard-hearted  unless  1 
loved  you ;  but  — 

ferreus  essem,  si  te  non  amarem ,  I  should  be  hard-hearted  if  I  did 

not  love  you. 

In  the  first  example,  it  is  the  notion  of  loving  you  that  is  negatived, 
in  the  second,  the  notion  of  loving. 

2.  SI  non  (si  minus)  is  regularly  employed:  — 

a )  When  an  apodosis  with  at,  tamen,  certe  follows  ;  as, — 
dolorem  si  non  potuero  frangere,  tamen  occultabo,  if 

I  cannot  crush  ?ny  sorrow ,  yet  I  will  hide  it. 

•  4 

b)  When  an  affirmative  protasis  is  repeated  in  negative  form ; 
as, — 

si  feceris,  magnam  habebo  gratiam ;  si  non  feceris, 

ignoscam,  if  you  do  it ,  I  shall  be  deeply  grateful ;  if  you 
do  not  do  it,  /  shall  pardon  you. 

a.  But  if  the  verb  is  omitted  in  the  repetition,  only  si  minus  or  sin 
minus  is  admissible;  as, — 

hoc  si  assecutus  sum,  g-audeo ;  si  minus,  me  cSnsSlor,  if  I 

have  attained  this ,  /  am  glad  ;  if  not,  l  console  myself. 

3.  Sin.  Where  one  protasis  is  followed  by  another  opposed  in 
meaning,  but  affirmative  in  form,  the  second  is  introduced  by  sin  ;  as,  — 

hunc  mihi  timorem  eripe  ;  si  verus  est,  ne  opprimar,  sin  falsus, 
ut  timere  desinam,  relieve  me  of  this  fear ;  if  it  is  well 
founded ,  that  I  may  not  be  destroyed ;  but  if  it  is  groundless , 
that  I  may  cease  to  fear. 

4.  Nisi  has  a  fondness  for  combining  with  negatives  (non,  nemo, 
nihil)  ;  as,  — 

nihil  cogitavit  nisi  caedem,  he  had  no  thought  but  murder, 
a.  N5n  and  nisi  are  always  separated  in  the  best  Latinity. 

5.  Nisi  forte,  nisi  vero,  nisi  si,  unless  perchance ,  unless  indeed 
(often  with  ironical  force),  take  the  Indicative;  as, — 

nisi  vero,  quia  perfecta  res  non  est,  non  videtur  punienda, 

unless  indeed,  because  an  act  is  not  consummated,  it  does  not 
see?n  to  merit  punishment. 


Clauses  of  Comparison.  —  Adversative  Clauses.  203 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison. 

307.  1.  Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  intro¬ 
duced  by  the  particles,  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tamquam 
si,  velut  si,  or  simply  by  velut  or  tamquam.  They  stand  in 
the  Subjunctive  mood  and  regularly  involve  an  ellipsis  (see 
§  374,  1),  as  indicated  in  the  following  examples  :  — 

tantus  patres  metus  cepit,  velut  si  jam  ad  portas  hostis  esset,  as 

great  fear  seized  the  senators  as  {would  have  seized  them )  if  the 
enemy  were  already  at  the  gates  ; 

sed  quid  ego  his  testibus  utor  quasi  res  dubia  aut  obscura  sit, 

but  why  do  I  use  these  witnesses ,  as  (Z  should  do )  if  the  matter 
were  doubtful  or  obscure  ; 

serviam  tibi  tamquam  si  emerls  me  argento,  I  will  serve  you  as 
though  you  had  bought  me  for  7noney. 

2.  Note  that  in  sentences  of  this  kind  the  Latin  observes  Jhe  regu¬ 
lar  principles  for  the.  Sequence  of  Tenses.  Thus  after  principal  tenses 
the  Latin  uses  the  Present  and  Perfect  (as  in  the  second  and  third  exam¬ 
ples),  where  the  English  uses  the  Past  and  the  Past  Perfect. 

• 

Concessive  Clauses. 

308.  The  term  ‘  Concessive  ’  is  best  restricted  to  those 
clauses  developed  from  the  Jussive  Subjunctive  which 
have  the  force  of  granted  that ,  etc. ;  as,  — - 

sit  fur,  sit  sacrilegus,  at  est  bonus  imperator,  granted  that  he  is  a 
thief  and  a  robber ,  yet  he  is  a  good  commander ; 
ut  hoc  verum  sit,  granted  that  this  is  true ; 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  granted  that  pain 
is  not  the  greatest  evil  yet  it  is  certainly  an  evil. 

Adversative  Clauses  with  Quamvls,  Quamquam ,  etc. 

309.  Clauses  introduced  by  quamvls,  quamquam,  etsl, 
tametsi,  cum,  although,  while  often  classed  as  ‘  Conces¬ 
sive,’  are  yet  essentially  different  from  genuine  Concessive 
clauses.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  grant  or  concede  any¬ 
thing,  but  rather  state  that  something  is  true  in  spite  of 


I 


204  Syntax. 

something  else.  They  accordingly  emphasize  the  adver¬ 
sative  idea,  and  are  properly  Subordinate  Adversative 
Clauses.  The  different  particles  used  to  introduce  these 
clauses  have  different  meanings  and  take  different  con¬ 
structions,  as  follows  :  — • 

1.  Quamvls,  however  much,  although ,  does  not  introduce  a  state¬ 
ment  of  fact,  but  represents  an  act  merely  as  conceived.  It  is  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive,  usually  of  the  present  tense ;  as,  — 

homines  quamvls  in  turbidls  rebus  sint,  tamen  interdum  animls 
relaxantur,  in  however  stirring  events  men  may  engage ,  yet  at 
times  they  relax  their  energies ; 

non  est  potestas  opitulandl  rel  publicae  quamvls  ea  prematur 
periculls,  there  is  no  opportunity  to  succor  the  state ,  though  it 
be  beset  by  dangers. 

2.  Quamquam,  etsi,  tametsT,  although ,  introduce  a  statement  of 
fact,  and  are  followed  by  the  Indicative  (of  any  tense)  ;  as,  — 

quamquam  omnis  virtus  nos  allicit,  tamen  justitia  id  maxime 
efficit,  although  all  virtue  attracts  its,  yet  justice  does  so  espe¬ 
cially  ; 

Caesar,  etsi  nondum  consilium  hostium  cognoverat,  tamen  id 
quod  accidit  suspicabatur,  Caesar,  though  he  did  not  yet  know 
the  plans  of  the  enemy,  yet  was  suspecting  what  actually  occurred. 

a.  Etsi,  although,  must  be  distinguished  from  etsi,  even  if.  The  latter 
is  a  conditional  particle  and  takes  any  of  the  constructions  admissible 
for  si.  (See  §§  302-304.) 

3.  Cum,  although,  is  followed  by  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

Atticus  honores  non  petiit,  cum  el  paterent,  Atticus  did  not  seek 

honors,  though  they  were  open  to  him. 

4.  Licet  sometimes  loses  its  verbal  force  (see  §  295,  6)  and  sinks  to 
the  level  of  a  conjunction  with  the  force  of  althotigh.  It  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  Present  or  Perfect;  as, — 

licet  omnes  terrores  impendeant,  succurram,  though  all  terrors 

hang  over  me,  (yet)  I  will  lend  aid. 

5.  Quamquam,  with  the  force  and  yet,  is  often  used  to  introduce 
principal  clauses  ;  as,  — 

quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak? 


Clauses  of  Proviso.  —  Relative  Clauses. 


205 


6.  In  post-Augustan  writers  quamquam  is  freely  construed  with  the  Sub¬ 
junctive,  while  quamvis  is  often  used  to  introduce  statements  of  fact,  and  takes 
either  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive.  Thus:  — 

quamquam  moveretur  his  vocibus,  although  he  was  vioved  by  these  words  ; 
quamvis  multi  oplnarentur,  though  many  thought ; 

quamvis  Infesto  animo  per veneras,  though  you  had  come  with  hostile  intent . 


Clauses  with  Dum,  Modo,  Dummodo ,  denoting  a  Wish 

or  a  Proviso. 

310.  These  particles  are  followed  by  the  Subjunctive 
(negative  ne)  and  have  two  distinct  uses  :  — 

I.  They  are  used  to  introduce  clauses  embodying  a  wish 
entertained  by  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb ;  as,  — 

•  % 

multi  honesta  neglegunt  dummodo  potentiam  consequantur, 

many  neglect  hotior  in  their  desire  to  obtain  power  {if  only  they 
may  attain ) ; 

omnia  postposul,  dum  praeceptis  patris  parerem,  I  made  everything 
else  secondary ,  in  my  desire  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  my  father ; 
nil  obstat  tibi,  dum  ne  sit  ditior  alter,  nothing  hinders  you  in  your 
desire  that  your  neighbor  may  not  be  richer  than  you. 

II.  They  are  used  to  express  a  proviso  (‘ provided 
that  ’) ;  as,  — 

oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate,  provided  they  fear ; 
manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria, 

old  men  retain  their  faculties ,  provided  only  they  retain  their 
interest  and  vigor ; 

nubant,  dum  ne  dos  fiat  comes,  let  them  marry ,  provided  no  dowry 
goes  with  it. 

Relative  Clauses. 

311.  Relative  Clauses  are  introduced  by  Relative  Pro¬ 
nouns,  Adjectives,  or  Adverbs. 

312.  1.  Relative  clauses  usually  stand  in  the  Indicative  Mood, 
especially  clauses  introduced  by  those  General  Relatives  which  are 
doubled  or  have  the  suffix  -cunque  ;  as,  — 


20  6 


Syntax. 


quid  quid  id  est,  timeo  Danaos  et  dona  ferentes,  whatever  it  is,  1 

fear  the  Greeks  even  when  they  offer  gifts ; 

quidquid  oritur,  qualecunque  est,  causam  a  natura  habet,  what¬ 
ever  comes  into  being,  of  whatever  Port  it  is,  has  its  primal  cause 
in  Nature. 

2.  Any  simple  Relative  may  introduce  a  conditional  sentence  of 
any  of  the  three  types  mentioned  in  §§  302-304;  as, — 

qul  h5c  dTcit,  errat,  he  who  says  this  is  mistaken  (First  Type)  ; 
qul  hoc  dicat,  erret,  he  would  be  mistaken  who  should  say  this 
(Second  Type) ; 

qul  hoc  dixisset,  errasset,  the  man  who  had  said  this  would  have 
been  mistaken. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  ( ORATIO  OBLIQUA). 

313.  When  the  language  or  thought  of  any  person  is 
reproduced  without  change,  that  is  called  Direct  Discourse 
( O  ratio  Recta);  as,  Caesar  said,  ‘  The  die  is  cast*  When, 
on  the  other  hand,  one’s  language  or  thought  is  made  to 
depend  upon  a  verb  of  saying,  thinking,  etc.,  that  is  called 
Indirect  Discourse  (Ordtid  Obliqna) ;  as,  Caesar  said  that 
the  die  was  cast ;  Caesar  thought  that  his  troops  were 
victorious. 

a.  For  the  verbs  most  frequently  employed  to  introduce  Indirect 
Discourse,  see  §  331. 


MOODS  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Declarative  Sentences. 

314.  I.  Declarative  Sentences  upon  becoming  Indirect 
change  their  main  clause  to  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative,  while  all  subordinate  clauses  take  the  Subjunc¬ 
tive  ;  as,  — 

Regulus  dixit  quam  diu  jure  jurando  hostium  teneretur  non  esse 
se  senatorem,  Regulus  said  that  as  long  as  he  was  held  by  his 
pledge  to  the  enemy  he  was  not  a  senator.  (Direct :  quam  diu 
teneor  non  sum  senator.) 


Indirect  Discourse. 


20  7 


2.  The  verb  of  saying,  thinking,  etc.,  is  sometimes  to  be  inferred 
from  the  context ;  as,  — 

« 

turn  Romulus  legatos  circa  vlclnas  gentes  mlsit  qul  societatem 
cdnubiumque  peterent :  urbes  quoque,  ut  cetera,  ex 
Infimo  nasci,  then  Romulus  sent  envoys  around  among  the 
neighboring  tribes ,  to  ask  for  alliance  and  the  right  of  inter¬ 
marriage,  ( saying  that)  cities,  like  everything  else ,  start  from  a 
modest  beginning. 

3.  Subordinate  clauses  which  contain  an  explanatory  statement  of 
the  writer  and  so  are  not  properly  a  part  of  the  Indirect  Discourse,  or 
which  emphasize  the  fact  stated,  take  the  Indicative  ;  as,  — 

nuntiatum  est  Ariovistum  ad  occupandum  Vesontionem,  quod 
est  oppidum  maximum  Sequanorum,  contendere,  it  was  re¬ 
ported  that  Ariovistus  was  hastening  to  seize  Vesontio,  which  is 
the  largest  town  of  the  Sequa7ii. 

4.  Sometimes  a  subordinate  clause  is  such  only  in  its  external  form, 
and  in  sense  is  principal.  It  then  takes  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative.  This  occurs  especially  in  case  of  relative  claused,  where 
qul  is  equivalent  to  et  hie,  nam  hie,  etc. ;  as,  — 

dixit  urbem  Atheniensium  propugnaculum  oppositum  esse  bar- 
barls,  apud  quam  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufra- 
gium,  he  said  the  city  of  the  Athenians  had  been  set  against  the 
barbarians  like  a  bulwark,  near  which  (  =  and  jiear  it)  the  fleets 
of  the  King  had  twice  met  disaster . 

m 

5.  The  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted 
when  it  refers  to  the  same  person  as  the  subject  of  the  leading 
verb,  or  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context ;  as,  — 

cum  id  nesclre  Mag5  dlceret,  when  Mago  said  he  did  not  know 
this  (for  se  nesclre). 

Interrogative  Sentences. 

315.  1.  Real  questions  of  the  Direct  Discourse,  upon 
becoming  indirect,  are  regularly  put  in  the  Subjunc¬ 
tive  ;  as,  — 

Ariovistus  Caesarl  respondit :  se  prius  in  Galliam  venisse  quam 
populum  Romanum.  Quid  sibi  vellet?  Cur  in  suas  pos¬ 
session's  venlret,  Ariovistus  replied  to  Caesar  that  he 


208 


Syntax. 


had  come  into  Gaul  before  the  Roman  people.  What  did  hi 
( Caesar )  mean  ?  Why  did  he  come  into  his  domain  ?  (Direct: 
quid  tibi  vis  ?  cur  in  meas  possessiones  veins  ?) 

2.  Rhetorical  questions,  on  the  other  hand,  being  asked 
merely  for  effect,  and  being  equivalent  in  force  to  emphatic 
statements,  regularly  stand  in  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Dis¬ 
course.  Thus :  — 

quid  est  levius  (lit.  what  is  more  trivial,  —  nothing  is  more  trivial) 
of  the  Direct  Discourse  becomes  quid  esse  levius  in  the  In¬ 
direct. 

3.  Deliberative  Subjunctives  of  the  Direct  Discourse  remain  un¬ 
changed  in  mood  in  the  Indirect  ;  as, — ■ 

quid  faceret,  what  was  he  to  do?  (Direct :  quid  faciat?) 

Imperative  Sentences. 

316.  All  Imperatives  or  Jussive  Subjunctives  of  the 
Direct  Discourse  appear  as  Subjunctives  in  the  In¬ 
direct  y  as,  — 

mllites  certiSres  fecit  paulisper  intermitterent  proelium,  he 

told  the  soldiers  to  stop  the  battle  for  a  little.  (Direct : 
intermittite.) 

a.  The  Negative  in  such  sentences  is  ne  ;  as, — 

ne  suae  virtutl  tribueret,  let  him  not  attribute  it  to  his  own 

valor  ! 

TENSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

A.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

317.  These  are  used  in  accordance  with  the  regular 
principles  for  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  given  in  §  270. 

a.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  may  represent  any  past  tense  of  the 
Indicative  of  Direct  Discourse.  Thus  :  — 

scio  te  haec  egisse  may  mean  — 

I  know  you  were  doing  this.  (Direct :  haec  agebas.) 

I  know  you  did  this.  (Direct :  haec  egistl.) 

1  know  you  had  done  this.  (Direct :  haec  egeras.) 


Indirect  Discourse . 


209 


B.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

318.  These  follow  the  regular  principle  for  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses,  being  Principal  if  the  verb  of  saying  is  Princi¬ 
pal ;  Historical  if  it  is  Historical.  Yet  for  the  sake  of 
vividness,  we  often  find  the  Present  Subjunctive  used 
after  an  historical  tens q  (Repraesentatio);  as, — 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum, 

Caesar  replied  that ,  if  hostages  be  given,  he  would  make  peace, 

a.  For  the  sequence  after  the  Perfect  Infinitive,  see  §  268,  2. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Conditional  Sentences  of  the  First  Type. 


319.  A.  The  Apodosis.  Any  tense  of  the  Indicative 
is  changed  to  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive 
(§§  270;  317,  a). 

B.  The  Protasis.  The  protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 
the  Subjunctive  which  are  required  by  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses. 

Examples :  — 


Direct. 


Indirect. 


sT  hoc  credis,  erras, 
si  hoc  credes,  errabis, 


dlco,  si  hoc  credas,  te  errare ; 
dlxl,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  errare. 

dlco,  si  hoc  credas,  te  erraturum  esse  ; 
dlxl,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erracurum  esse. 


si  hoc  credideris,  errabis, 


dlco,  si  hoc  credideris,  te  erraturum 

esse : 

' 

dlxl,  si  hoc  credidisses,  te  erraturum 
„  esse. 


si  hoc  credebas,  erravistl, 


f  dlco,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erravisse  ; 
[dlxl,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erravisse. 


a.  Note  that  a  Future  Perfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
regularly  appears  in  the  Indirect  as  a  Perfect  Subjunctive  after 
a  principal  tense,  and  as  a  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  his 
torical  tense. 


210 


Syntax. 


Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Second  Type. 


320.  A.  The  Apodosis.  The  Present  Subjunctive  of 
the  Direct  Discourse  regularly  becomes  the  Future  Infini¬ 
tive  of  the  Indirect. 

B.  The  Protasis.  The  Protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 
the  Subjunctive  demanded  by  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

Examples  :  — 


dlco,  si  hoc  credas,  te  erraturum  esse ; 
dlxl,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erraturum  esse 


Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Third  Type. 

321.  A.  The  Apodosis. 

1.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes  the  Future  Infinitive. 

a.  But  this  construction  is  rare,  being  represented  in  the  clas¬ 
sical  Latinity  by  a  single  example  (Caesar,  V.  29.  2).  Some 
scholars  question  the  correctness  of  this  passage. 

2.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes :  — 

a )  In  the  Active  Voice  the  Infinitive  in  -urus  fuisse. 

b )  In  the  Passive  Voice  it  takes  the  form  futurum  fuisse  ut 
with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

B.  The  Protasis.  The  protasis  in  Conditional  Sen¬ 
tences  of  this  type  always  remains  unchanged. 

Examples :  — 

si  hoc  crederes,  errares,  dlco  (dlxl),  si  hoc  crederes,  te  er¬ 

raturum  esse ; 

si  hoc  credidisses,  erravisses,  dlco  (dlxl),  si  hoc  credidisses,  te 

erraturum  fuisse ; 

si  h5c  dixisses,  punitus  esses,  dlco  (dlxl),  si  hdc  dixisses  futu¬ 
rum  fuisse  ut  pumreris. 

322.  When  an  apodosis  of  a  conditional  sentence  of  the  Third 
Type  referring  to  the  past  is  at  the  same  time  a  Result  clause,  or  a 


Indirect  Discourse. 


21 1 


quin-clause  (after  non  dubito,  etc.),  it  stands  in  the  Perfect  Sub¬ 
junctive  in  the  form  -urus  fuerim  ;  as,  — 

ita  territl  sunt,  ut  arma  tradituri  fuerint,1  nisi  Caesar  subito 
advenisset,  they  were  so  frightened  that  they  would  have  given 
up  their  arms ,  had  not  Caesar  suddenly  arrived ; 
non  dubito  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  fueris,1  /  do  not  doubt 
that ,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  would  have  made  a  mistake. 

a.  This  peculiarity  is  confined  to  the  Active  Voice.  In  the 
Passive,  such  sentences,  when  they  become  dependent, 
remain  unchanged ;  as,  — 

non  dubito  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  vituperatus  esses,  1 

do  not  doubt  that ,  if  you  had  said  this ,  you  woidd  have 
been  bla?ned. 

b.  When  an  Indirect  Question  becomes  an  apodosis  in  a  con¬ 
ditional  sentence  of  the  Third  Type,  -urus  fuerim  (rarely 
-urus  fuissem)  is  used  ;  as,  — 

quaero,  num,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  fueris  (or 
fuisses). 

c.  Potui,  when  it  becomes  a  dependent  apodosis  in  sentences  of  this 
Type,  usually  changes  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 

concursu  totius  civitatis  defensi  sunt,  ut  frigidissimds 
quoque  oratores  populi  studia  excitare  potuerint, 

they  were  defended  begot  e  a  gathering  of  all  the  citizens,  so  that  the 
interest  of  the  people  would  have  been  enough  to  excite  even  the 
most  apathetic  orators. 


IMPLIED  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

323.  The  Subjunctive  is  often  used  in  subordinate  clauses  whose 
Indirect  character  is  merely  implied  by  the  context ;  as,  — 
demonstrabantur  mihi  praeterea,  quae  Socrates  de  immortali- 
tate  animorum  disseruisset,  there  were  explained  to  me  be¬ 
sides,  the  arguments  which  Socrates  had  set  forth  concerning  the 
immortality  of  the  sold  (i.e.  the  arguments  which,  it  was  said, 
Socrates  had  set  forth)  ; 

Paetus  omnes  libros  qu5s  pater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit, 

Paetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  (as  he  said)  his  father  had  left. 


1  Traditurl  fuerint  and  erraturus  fueris  are  to  be  regarded  as  repre¬ 
senting  tradituri  fuerunt  and  erraturus  fuisti  of  Direct  Discourse.  (See 
h  304-  3-  b.) 


212 


Syntax. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION. 

324.  i.  Subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Sub¬ 
junctive  are  frequently  attracted  into  the  same  mood, 
especially  when  they  do  not  express  a  fact,  but  constitute 
an  essential  part  of  one  complex  idea  ;  as,  — 

nemo  avarus  adhuc  inventus  est,  cui,  quod  haberet,  esset  satis, 

no  miser  has  yet  been  found  who  was  satisfied  with  what  he 
had ; 

cum  dlversas  causas  afferrent,  dum  formam  sul  quisque  et 
animl  et  ingenl  redderent,  as  they  brought  forward  different 
arguments ,  while  each  mirrored  his  own  individual  type  of 
mind  and  natural  bent ; 

quod  ego  fatear,  pudeat?  should  I  be  ashamed  of  a  thing  which  I 
adjnit  f 

2.  Similarly  a  subordinate  clause  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive 
is  put  in  the  Subjunctive  when  the  two  form  one  closely  united 
whole ;  as,  — 

mos  est  Athenis  quotannis  in  contione  laudarl  eos  qul  sint  in 
proelils  interfecti,  it  is  the  custom  at  Athens  every  year  for 
those  to  be  p7iblicly  eulogized  who  have  been  killed  in  battle. 
(Here  the  notion  of  ‘praising  those  who  fell  in  battle1  forms 
an  inseparable  whole.) 

NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

325.  These  are  the  Infinitive,  Participle,  Gerund,  and 
Supine.  All  of  these  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  Verb, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Noun  or  Adjective,  on  the 
other.  Thus:  — 

As  Verbs,  — 

a )  They  may  be  limited  by  adverbs; 

b)  They  admit  an  object ; 

c)  They  have  the  properties  of  voice  and  tense. 

As  Nouns  or  Adjectives, — 

a)  They  are  declined  ; 

b)  They  take  Noun  or  Adjective  constructions. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb. 


213 


,  THE  INFINITIVE. 

Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative. 

326.  This  is  used  chiefly  as  Subject  or  Object  but  also  as 
Predicate  or  Appositive. 

Note.  —  The  Infinitive  was  originally  a  Dative,  and  traces  of  this  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  poetical  use  of  the  Infinitive  to  express  purpose  ;  as,  nec  dulces  occur- 
rent  oscula  natl  praeripere,  and,  no  sweet  children  will  run  to  snatch  kisses . 

A.  As  Stibject. 

327.  i.  The  Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative  is 
used  as  the  Subject  of  esse  and  various  impersonal  verbs, 
particularly  opus  est,  necesse  est,  oportet,  juvat,  delectat, 
placet,  libet,  licet,  praestat,  decet,  pudet,  interest,  etc. ;  as,  — - 

dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori,  it  is  sweet  and  noble  to  die 
for  one's  country ; 

virorum  est  fortium  toleranter  doldrem  pati,  it  is  the  part  of  brave 
men  to  endure  pai?i  with  patience ; 

senatul  placuit  legatos  mittere,  the  Senate  decided  (lit.  it  pleased  the 
Senate )  to  send  envoys. 

2.  Even  though  the  Infinitive  itself  appears  without  Subject,  it  may 
take  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  in  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

aliud  est  Iracundum  esse,  aliud  Iratum,  it  is  one  thing  to  be  irasci¬ 
ble,  another  to  be  angry ; 

impune  quaelibet  facere,  id  est  regem  esse,  to  do  whatever  you 
please  with  impunity ,  that  is  to  be  a  king. 

a.  But  when  licet  is  followed  by  a  Dative  of  the  person,  a  Predicate 
Noun  or  Adjective  with  esse  is  attracted  into  the  same  case  ;  as, 
licuit  esse  otioso  Themistocll,  lit.  it  was  permitted  to  Themisto- 
cles  to  be  at  leisure.  So  sometimes  with  other  Impersonals. 


B.  As  Object. 


328.  1.  The  Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative  is 
used  as  the  Object  of  many  verbs,  to  denote  another  action 
of  the  same  subject,  particularly  after  — 


debeo,  ought ; 
statuo,  cSnstituo,  decide', 


volo,  cupio,  malo,  nolo ; 


cogito,  meditor,  purpose ,  intend; 
neglego,  neglect ; 
vereor,  timed,  fear  ; 


214 


Syntax. 


audeo,  dare ; 

studeo,  contends,  strive  j 
paro,  prepare  (so  paratus)  ; 
incipio,  coepl,  Instituo,  begin 
pergd,  continue ; 
desino,  desisto,  cease ; 
possum,  can ; 
conor,  try ; 


maturo,  festlno,  propero,  con¬ 
tends,  hasten  ; 

assuescS,  cSnsuescS,  accustom 
myself  (so  assuetus,  Insuetus, 
assuefactus)  ; 
discS,  learn ; 
sciS,  know  how ; 
soleS,  am  wont ;  as,  — 


tu  hos  intueri  audes,  do  you  dare  to  look  on  these  men  1 

Demosthenes  ad  fluctus  maris  declamare  solebat,  Dejnostheties 

used  to  declaim  by  the  waves  of  the  sea. 


2.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  with  these  Infinitives  is  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  ;  as,  — 

beatus  esse  sine  virtute  nemo  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without 
virtue ; 

Cats  esse  quam  videri  bonus  malebat,  Cato  preferred  to  be  good 
rather  than  to  seem  so. 


Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative. 

329.  This  is  used  chiefly  as  Subject  or  Object  but  also 
as  Predicate  or  Appositive. 

A.  As  Subject. 

330.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  (like  the 
simple  Infinitive)  is  used  as  Subject  with  esse  and  Imper¬ 
sonal  verbs,  particularly  with  aequum  est,  utile  est,  turpe 
est,  fama  est,  spes  est,  fas  est,  nefas  est,  opus  est,  necesse 
est,  oportet,  constat,  praestat,  licet,  etc.  ;  as,  — 

nihil  in  bello  oportet  contemnl,  nothing  ought  to  be  despised  in  war ; 
apertum  est  sibi  quemque  natura  esse  carum,  it  is  manifest  that 

by  nature  everybody  is  dear  to  himself. 

B.  As  Object. 

331.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  used  as 
Object  after  the  following  classes  of  verbs  :  — 

I.  Most  frequently  after  verbs  of  saying ,  thinking. \  knowing,  per¬ 
ceiving,  and  the  like  ( Verba  Se7itiendi  et  Declarandi).  This  is  the 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb. 


215 


regular  construction  of  Principal  Clauses  of  Indirect  Discourse.  Verbs 
that  take  this  construction  are,  among  others,  the  following:  sentio, 
audio,  video,  cogndsco ;  puto,  judico,  spero,  cdnfldo ;  scio, 
meminl ;  died,  afflrmo,  nego  ( say  that  .  .  .  not),  trado,  narro, 
fateor,  responded,  scrlbo,  prdmitto,  glorior.  Also  the  phrases : 
certiorem  facid  ( inform ),  memoria  teneo  {remember),  etc. 

Examples :  — 

Epicure!  putant  cum  corporibus  simul  animos  interlre,  the  Epi¬ 
cureans  think  that  the  soul  perishes  with  the  body ; 

Thales  dixit  aquam  esse  initium  rerum,  Thales  said  that  water  was 
the  first  principle  of  the  universe ; 

Democritus  negat  quicquid  esse  sempiternum,  Democritus  says 
nothing  is  everlasting ; 

spero  eum  venturum  esse,  I  hope  that  he  will  co?ne. 

II.  With  jubeo,  order,  and  veto,  forbid ;  as,  — 

Caesar  mllites  pontem  facere  jussit,  Caesar  ordered  the  soldiers  to 
make  a  bridge.  « 

a.  When  the  name  of  the  person  who  is  ordered  or  forbidden  to  do 
something  is  omitted,  the  Infinitive  with  jubeo  and  veto  is  put  in 
the  Passive ;  as,  Caesar  pontem  fieri  jussit. 

III.  With  patior  and  si  no,  permit,  allow ;  as, — 

nullo  se  implicarl  negotio  passus  est,  he  did  not  permit  himself  to 
be  mvolved  in  any  difiicidty. 

IV.  With  void,  nolo,  malo,  cupio,  when  the  Subject  of  the  Infini¬ 
tive  is  different  from  that  of  the  governing  verb ;  as, — 

nec  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorquerl  void,  nor  do  I  wish  this  error  to 
be  wrested  fro7n  me ; 

eas  res  jactarl  nolebat,  he  was  unwilling  that  these  matters  should  be 
discussed ; 

te  tuls  dlvitils  frul  cupimus,  we  desire  that  you  enjoy  your  wealth. 

a.  When  the  Subject  of  both  verbs  is  the  same,  the  simple  Infinitive  is 
regularly  used  in  accordance  with  §  328.  1.  But  exceptions  occur,  es¬ 
pecially  in  case  of  esse  and  Passive  Infinitives;  as,  — 

cupio  me  esse  clementem,  /  desire  to  be  lenient ; 

Timoleon  maluit  se  dlliga  quam  metui,  Timoleon  preferred  to 
be  loved  rather  than  feared. 

b.  Void  also  admits  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut;  nolo  the  Sub¬ 
junctive  alone.  (See  §  296.  1.  a.) 


21 6 


Syntax. 


V.  With  Verbs  of  emotion  ( joy ,  sorrow ,  regret ,  £/c.),  especially 
gaudeo,  laetor,  doleo  ;  aegre  fero,  moleste  fero,  graviter  fero,  <zw 
annoyed,  distressed ;  miror,  queror,  indignor  ;  as, — 

gaudeo  te  salvum  ad  venire,  I  rejoice  that  yon  arrive  safely ; 
non  moleste  ferunt  se  libldinum  vinculls  laxatos  esse,  they  are 
not  troubled  at  being  released  from  the  bonds  of  passion  ; 
miror  te  ad  me  nihil  scrlbere,  I  wonder  that  you  write  me  nothing. 

a.  Instead  of  an  Infinitive  these  verbs  also  sometimes  admit  a  quod- 
clause  as  Object.  (See  §  299.)  Thus  :  — 

miror  quod  non  loqueris,  I  wonder  that  you  do  not  speak . 

VI.  Some  verbs  which  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the  Person  and 
the  other  of  the  Thing  (§  178,  1),  may  substitute  an  Infinitive  for  the 
second  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

cogo  te  hoc  facere,  /  compel  you  to  do  this  ( cf .  te  hoc  cogo)  ; 
docul  te  contentum  esse,  /  taught  you  to  be  content  ( cf.  te  modes- 

tiam  docul,  I  taught  you  temperance ). 

Passive  Construction  of  the  Foregoing  Verbs. 

332.  Those  verbs  which  in  the  Active  are  followed  by 
the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative,  usually  admit  the 
personal  construction  in  the  Passive.  This  is  true  of  the 
following  and  of  some  others  :  — 

a)  jubeor,  vetor,  sinor  ;  as,  — • 

mllites  pontem  facere  jussl  sunt,  the  soldiers  were  ordered 

to  build  a  bridge ; 

pons  fieri  jussus  est,  a  bridge  was  ordered  built ; 
mllites  castrls  exlre  vetitl  sunt,  the  troops  were  forbidden 
to  go  out  of  the  camp  ; 

Sestius  Clodium  accusare  non  est  situs,  Sestius  was 

not  allowed  to  accuse  Clodius. 

b)  vide  or,  /  am  seen ,  I  seem  ;  as, — 

videtur  comperisse,  he  seems  to  have  discovered. 

c )  dlcor,  putor,  exlstimor,  judicor  (in  all  persons)  ;  as, — 

dlcitur  in  Italiam  venisse,  he  is  said  to  have  come  into 
Italy ; 

Romulus  primus  rex  Romanorum  fuisse  putatur,  Romu¬ 
lus  is  thought  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  the  Romans. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb . 


217 


d)  fertur,  feruntur,  traditur,  traduntur  (only  in  the  third 

person)  ;  as,  — 

fertur  Homerus  caecus  fuisse,  Homer  is  said  to  have  been 
blind ; 

carmina  Archilochl  contumeliis  referta  esse  traduntur, 

Archilochus' s  poems  are  reported  to  have  been  full  of 
abuse. 

NOTE.  —  In  compound  tenses  and  periphrastic  forms,  the  last  two  classes  of 
verbs,  c),  d),  more  commonly  take  the  impersonal  construction;  as, — 

traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  the  story  goes  that  Homer  was 

blind. 

Infinitive  with  Adjectives. 

333.  The  Infinitive  with  Adjectives  (except  paratus,  assuetus, 
etc. ;  see  §  328,  1)  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  post-Augustan  prose 
writers ;  as,  — 

contentus  demonstrasse,  contented  to  have  proved] 
audax  omnia  perpetl,  bold  for  enduring  everything. 

Infinitive  in  Exclamations. 

334.  The  Infinitive  is  used  in  Exclamations  implying  scorn ,  indig¬ 
nation ,  or  regret.  An  intensive  -ne  is  often  attached  to  some  word  in 
the  clause.  Examples  :  — 

huncine  solem  tarn  nigrum  surrexe  mihi,  to  think  that  to-day's  sun 
rose  with  such  evil  ometi  for  me  ! 
sedere  totos  dies  in  villa,  to  stay  whole  days  at  the  villa 

Historical  Infinitive. 

335.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  in  historical  narrative  instead  of  the 
Imperfect  Indicative.  The  Subject  stands  in  the  Nominative  ;  as,  — 

interim  cottldie  Caesar  Haeduos  frumentum  flagitare,  7neanwhile 
Caesar  was  daily  demanding  grain  of  the  Haedui. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Tenses  of  the  Participle. 

336.  1.  The  tenses  of  the  Participle,  like  those  of  the 
Infinitive  (see  §  270),  express  time  not  absolutely,  but  with 
reference  to  the  verb  upon  which  the  Participle  depends. 


2 1 8  Syntax. 

2.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  contemporary  with  that  of 
the  verb.  Thus  :  — 

audio  te  loquentem  —  you  are  speakhig  and  I  hear  you  ; 
audiebam  te  loquentem  —  you  were  speaking  and  I  heard  you  ; 
audiam  te  loquentem  =  you  will  be  speaking  and  I  shall  hear  you. 

a.  The  Present  Participle  is  sometimes  employed  with  Conative 
force ;  as,  — 

assurgentem  regem  resuplnat,  as  the  king  was  trying  to 

rise ,  he  threw  him  down. 

3.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  denotes  action  prior  to  that  of 
the  verb.  Thus  :  — 

locutus  taceo  =  /  have  spoken  and  am  silent ; 
locutus  tacul  =  /  had  spoken  and  then  was  silent ; 
locutus  tacebo  =  /  shall  speak  and  then  shall  be  silent. 

4.  The  absolute  time  of  the  action  of  a  participle,  therefore,  is 
determined  entirely  by  the  finite  verb  with  which  it  is  connected. 

5.  Certain  Perfect  Passive  Participles  of  Deponent  and  Semi- 
Deponent  Verbs  are  used  as  Presents;  viz.  arbitratus,  ausus,  ratus, 
gavlsus,  solitus,  usus,  conflsus,  difflsus,  secutus,  veritus. 

Use  of  Participles. 

337.  As  an  Adjective  the  Participle  may  be  used  either 
as  an  attributive  or  predicate  modifier  of  a  Substantive. 

1.  Attributive  Use.  This  presents  no  special  peculiarities.  Ex¬ 
amples  are :  — 

gloria  est  consentiens  laus  bonorum,  glory  is  the  unanimous  praise 

of  the  good ; 

Conon  muros  a  Lysandro  dlrutos  reficit,  Conon  restored  the  walls 
destroyed  by  Ly sander. 

2.  Predicate  Use.  Here  the  Participle  is  often  equivalent  to  a 
subordinate  clause.  Thus  the  Participle  may  denote :  — 

a )  Time  ;  as,  — ■ 

omne  malum  nascens  facile  opprimitur,  every  evil  is 

easily  crushed  at  birth. 

b)  A  Condition  ;  as,  — - 

mente  uti  non  possumus  cibo  et  pdtione  completl,  if 

gorged  with  food  a7id  drink,  we  cannot  use  our  intellects. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb. 


219 


c )  Manner ;  as,  — 

Solon  senescere  se  dlcebat  multa  in  dies  addiscentem, 

Solon  said  he  grew  old  learning  many  new  things  daily . 

d)  Means  ;  as,  — 

sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun,  by  its  rising,  makes  the 
day. 

e )  Opposition  (‘  though  ’)  ;  as,  — 

mendacl  hominl  ne  verum  quidem  dicentl  credimus, 

we  do  not  believe  a  liar ,  though  he  speaks  the  truth. 

f )  Cause ;  as,  — 

perfidiam  veritus  ad  suos  recessit,  since  he  feared 
treachery ,  he  returned  to  his  own  troops . 

3.  VideS  and  audio,  besides  the  Infinitive,  take  the  Present  Par¬ 
ticiple  in  the  Predicate  use  ;  as,  — 

video  te  fugientem,  I  see  you  fleeing, 
a.  So  frequently  faciS,  fingS,  indued,  etc.  ;  as,  — 

eis  Catonem  respondentem  facimus,  we  represent  Cato  reply¬ 
ing  to  them  ; 

Homerus  Laertem  colentem  agrum  facit,  Homer  represents 
Laertes  tilling  the  field. 

4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  (except  futurus)  is  regularly  con¬ 
fined  to  its  use  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  but  in  poets  and  later 
writers  it  is  used  independently,  especially  to  denote  purpose;  as, — 

venerunt  castra  oppugnaturi,  they  came  to  assault  the  camp. 

5.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  is  often  equivalent  to  a  coordi¬ 
nate  clause ;  as,  — 

urbem  captam  diruit,  he  captured  and  destroyed  the  city  (lit.  he  de¬ 
stroyed  the  city  captured} . 

6.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  combination  with  a  noun  is 
sometimes  equivalent  to  an  abstract  noun  with  a  dependent  Genitive; 

as,  — 

post  urbem  conditam,  after  the  founding  of  the  city ; 

Qulnctius  defensus,  the  defense  of  Quine tius ; 

quibus  animus  occupatus,  the  freocaipation  of  the  tnind  with  which. 

7.  Habeo  sometimes  takes  a  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  the  Predi¬ 
cate  construction  with  a  force  not  far  removed  from  that  of  the  Perfect 
or  Pluperfect  Indicative;  as, — 

copias  quas  coactas  habebat,  the  forces  which  he  had  collected. 


220 


Syntax. 


8.  The  Gerundive  denotes  obligation ,  necessity ,  etc.  Like  other  Par¬ 
ticiples  it  may  be  used  either  as  Attributive  or  Predicate. 

a )  Less  frequently  as  Attributive.  Thus  :  — 
liber  legendus,  a  book  worth  reading ; 

leges  observandae,  laws  deserving  of  observance. 

b)  More  frequently  as  Predicate. 

1)  In  the  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (amandus 
est,  etc.).  In  this  use  Intransitive  Verbs  can  be  used  only 
impersonally,  but  admit  their  ordinary  case-construction 
(Gen.,  Dat.,  Abl.);  as, — 

veniendum  est,  it  is  necessary  to  come ; 

oblivlscendum  est  injuriarum,  one  must  forget  injuries ; 
numquam  proditori  credendum  est,  you  must  never  trust 
a  traitor ; 

suo  cuique  utendum  est  judicio,  every  man  must  use  his 

own  judgment. 

2)  After  euro,  provide  for ;  do,  trado ,  give  over ;  relin- 
quo,  leave ;  concedo,  hand  over;  and  some  other  verbs, 
instead  of  an  object  clause  or  to  denote  purpose  ;  as, — 
Caesar  pontem  in  Ararl  faciendum  curavit,  Caesar  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Arar ; 

imperator  urbem  militibus  diripiendam  concessit,  the 
general  handed  over  the  city  to  the  soldiers  to  plunder. 

9.  For  the  Gerundive  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Gerund,  see  §  339,  1. 

THE  GERUND. 

338.  As  a  verbal  noun  the  Gerund  admits  noun  con¬ 
structions  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Genitive.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  With  Nouns,  as  Objective  or  Appositional  Genitive  (see 
§§  200,  202)  ;  as,  — 

* 

cupiditas  dominandi,  desire  of  ruling ; 
ars  scribendl,  the  art  of  writing. 

b)  With  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

cupidus  audiendl,  desirous  of  hearing. 

c)  With  causa,  gratia  ;  as,  — 

discendl  causa,  for  the  sake  of  learning. 


Noun  atid  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb. 


221 


2.  Dative.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a )  With  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking, 

b)  With  Verbs  (rarely)  ;  as, — 

adful  scrlbendo,  I  was  present  at  the  writing. 

3.  Accusative.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  only  with 
Prepositions,  chiefly  ad  and  in  to  denote  purpose  ;  as,  — 

homo  ad  agendum  natus  est,  nian  is  born  for  action. 

» 

4.  Ablative.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  Without  a  Preposition,  as  an  Ablative  of  Means,  Cause,  etc. 
(see  §§  218,  219)  ;  as,— 

mens  discendo  alitur  et  cogitando,  the  mind  is  nourished 
by  learning  and  reflection. 

Themistocles  maritimos  praedSnes  consectando  mare 
tutum  reddidit,  Themistocles  77iade  the  sea  safe  by  fob 
lowi7ig  up  the  pirates. 

b)  After  the  prepositions  a,  de,  ex,  in  ;  as, — 

summa  voluptas  ex  discendo  capitur,  the  keenest  pleas¬ 
ure  is  derived  fro77i  lear7iing ; 

multa  de  bene  beateque  vivendo  a  Platone  disputata 
sunt,  there  was  much  discussio7i  by  Plato  071  the  subject 
of  living  well  and  happily. 

5.  As  a  rule,  only  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  the  Ablative 
(without  a  preposition)  admit  a  Direct  Object. 

Gerundive  Construction  instead  of  the  Gerund. 

339.  1.  Instead  cf  the  Genitive  or  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a 
Direct  Object,  another  construction  77iay  be,  and  very  often  is,  used . 
This  consists  in  putting  the  Direct  Object  in  the  case  of  the  Gerund 
(Gen.  or  Abl.)  and  using  the  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it.  This 
is  called  the  Gerundive  Construction.  Thus  :  — 

Gerund  Construction.  Gerundive  Construction. 

cupidus  urbem  videndl,  desirous\  _ 

}  cupidus  urbis  videndae ; 

of  seeing  the  city ;  J 

delector  orStores  legendo,  /  am)  .  __ 

,  ,  .  ,  ..  .  1  delector  oratonbus  legendis. 

charmed  with  reading  the  orators.  J 


222 


Syntax. 


2.  The  Gerundive  Construction  must  be  used  to  avoid  a  Direct 
Object  with  the  Dative  of  the  Gerund,  or  with  a  case  dependent  upon 
a  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

locus  castris  muniendls  aptus,  a  place  adapted  to  fortifying  a  camp  ; 

ad  pacem  petendam  venerunt,  they  came  to  ask  peace; 

multum  temporis  consumo  in  legendls  poetls,  I  spend  much  time 

in  reading  the  poets. 

3.  In  order  to  avoid  ambiguity  (see  §  236,  2),  the  Gerundive  Con¬ 
struction  must  not  be  employed  in  case  of  Neuter  Adjectives  used 
substantively.  Thus  regularly  — 

philosophi  cupidi  sunt  vgrum  investlgandl,  philosophers  are  eager 
for  discovering  truth  (rarely  veil  investlgandl)  ; 
studium  plura  cognoscendl,  a  desire  of  knowing  more  (not  plurium 
cognoscendorum). 

4.  From  the  nature  of  the  case  only  Transitive  Verbs  can  be  used 
in  the  Gerundive  Construction ;  but  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior  (orig¬ 
inally  transitive)  regularly  admit  it ;  as,  — 

hostes  in  spem  potiundorum  castrorum  venerant,  the  enemy  had 

conceived  the  hope  of  gaining  possession  of  the  camp. 

5.  The  Genitives  mel,  tul,  sul,  nostrl,  vestrl,  when  used  in  the 
Gerundive  Construction,  are  regularly  employed  without  reference  to 
Gender  or  Number,  since  they  were  originally  Neuter  Singular  Adjec¬ 
tives  used  substantively.  Thus  :  — 

mulier  sul  servandl  causa  aufugit,  the  woman  fled  for  the  sake  of 

saving  herself ; 

legatl  in  castra  venerunt  sul  purgandi  causa,  the  envoys  ca?ne  into 
camp  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  thejnselves. 

So  nostrl  servandl  causa,  for  the  sake  of  saving  ourselves. 

6.  Occasionally  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  is  used 
to  denote  purpose ;  as,  — 

quae  ille  cepit  legum  ac  libertatis  subvertundae,  which  he  under¬ 
took  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowmg  the  laws  and  liberty . 

7.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  occurs  in  some  ex¬ 
pressions  which  have  the  character  of  formulas  ;  as,  — 

decemviri  legibus  scrlbundls,  decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws ; 
qulndecimvirl  sacrls  faciundls,  quindecemvirs  for  performing  the 

sacrifices. 


Coordinate  Conjunctions . 


223 


THE  SUPINE. 

340.  1.  The  Supine  in-umis  used  after  Verbs  of  motion  to  express 
purpose;  as, — 

( 

legatl  ad  Caesarem  gratulatum  convenerunt,  envoys  ca?ne  to  Cae¬ 
sar  to  congratulate  him. 

a.  The  Supine  in  -um  may  take  an  Object;  as, — 

pacem  petltum  oratores  Romam  mittunt,  they  send  en - 
voys  to  Rome  to  ask  for  peace. 

b .  Note  the  phrase:  — 

do  (colloco)  filiam  nuptum,  I  give  my  daughter  in  mar¬ 
riage. 

2.  The  Supine  in  -u  is  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Specification  with 
facilis,  difficilis,  incredibilis,  jucundus,  optimus,  etc. ;  also  with 
fas  est,  nefas  est,  opus  est ;  as,  — 

haec  res  est  facilis  cognitu,  this  thing  is  easy  to  learn ; 
hoc  est  optimum  factu,  this  is  best  to  do. 

a.  Only  a  few  Supines  in  -u  are  in  common  use,  chiefly  audltu, 
cognitu,  dictu,  factu,  visu. 

b.  The  Supine  in  -u  never  takes  an  Object. 


■•O* 


Chapter  VI.  —  Particles . 

COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

341.  Copulative  Conjunctions.  These  join  one  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  to  another. 

1.  a)  et  simply  connects. 

b)  -que  joins  more  closely  than  et,  and  is  used  especially  where 
the  two  members  have  an  internal  connection  with  each 
other;  as, — 

parentes  liberlque,  parents  and  children  ; 
cum  homines  aestu  febrlque  jactantur,  when  people  are 
tossed  about  with  heat  and  fever. 


224 


Syntax. 


c)  atque  (ac)  usually  emphasizes  the  second  of  the  two  things 
connected,  —  and  also ,  and  indeed \  and  m  fact.  After  words 
of  likeness  and  difference  atque  (ac)  has  the  force  of  as, 
than.  Thus :  — 

ego  idem  sentio  ac  tu,  I  think  the  same  as  you] 
haud  aliter  ac.  not  otherwise  than. 

d)  neque  (nec)  means  and  not ,  neither ,  nor. 

2.  a)  -que  is  an  enclitic,  and  is  appended  always  to  the  second  of 

two  words  connected.  Where  it  connects  phrases  or  clauses 
it  is  appended  to  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause ;  but 
when  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause  is  a  Preposition, 
-que  is  regularly  appended  to  the  next  following  word  ;  as,  — - 

ob  eamque  rem,  and  on  account  of  that  thing. 

b)  atque  is  used  before  vowels  and  consonants  ;  ac  never  before 
vowels,  and  seldom  before  c,  g,  qu. 

c)  et  non  is  used  for  neque  when  the  emphasis  of  the  negative 
rests  upon  a  special  word  ;  as,  — 

vetus  et  non  ignobilis  orator,  an  old  and  not  ignoble  orator . 

d)  For  and  nowhere ,  and  never ,  and  none ,  the  Latin  regularly 
said  nec  usquam,  nec  umquam,  nec  ullus,  etc. 

3.  Correlatives.  Copulative  Conjunctions  are  frequently  used 
correlatively ;  as,  — 

et  .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and ; 

neque  (nec)  .  .  .  neque  (nec),  neither  .  .  .  nor ; 
cum  .  .  .  turn,  while  ...  at  the  same  time  ; 
turn  .  .  .  turn,  not  only  .  .  ..  but  also. 

Less  frequently :  — 

et  .  .  .  neque ;  neque  .  .  .  et. 

a.  Note  that  the  Latin,  with  its  tendency  to  emphasize  antithetical  relations, 
often  uses  correlatives,  especially  et  .  .  .  et,  et  .  .  .  neque,  neque 
.  .  .  et,  where  the  English  employs  but  a  single  connective. 

4.  In  enumerations  — 

a)  The  different  members  of  a  series  may  follow  one  .another 
without  connectives  (Asyndeton  ;  see  §  346).  Thus:  — 

ex  cupiditatibus  odia,  discidia,  discordiae,  seditiones, 
bella  nascuntur,  from  covetous  desires  spri)ig  up 
hatred ,  dissensions,  discord,  sedition,  wars. 


Coordinate  Conjunctions. 


225 


b)  The  different  members  may  severally  be  connected  by  et 
(Polysyndeton) .  Thus  :  — 

horae  cedunt  et  dies  et  menses  et  annl,  hours  aiid  days 
a?id  years  and  months  pass  away. 

c)  The  connective  may  be  omitted  between  the  former  members, 
while  the  last  two  are  connected  by  -que  (rarely  et)  ;  as,  — • 

Caesar  in  Carnutes,  Andes  Turonesque  legidnes  dedu- 
cit,  Caesar  leads  his  legions  into  the  territory  of  the 
Carnutes ,  Andes ,  and  Turones. 

342.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  indicate  an  alternative. 

j.  a )  aut  must  be  used  when  the  alternatives  are  mutually  ex¬ 
clusive  ;  as,  — 

cita  mors  venit  aqt  victoria  laeta,  ( either )  swift  death  or 
glad  vi-ctory  comes. 

b )  vel,  -ve  (enclitic)  imply  a  choice  between  the  alterna¬ 
tives  ;  as,  — 

qul  aether  vel  caelum  nominatur,  which  is  called  aether 
or  heaven. 


2.  Correlatives, 
lively ;  as,  — 


Disjunctive  Conjunctions  are  often  used  correla- 


aut 

vel 

slve 


or 


.  aut,  either  .  .  ,  v,  , 

.  vel,  either  .  .  .  or ; 

.  slve,  if . orif. 


343.  Adversative  Conjunctions.  These  denote  oppo¬ 
sition. 

I.  a)  sed,  but ,  merely  denotes  opposition. 

b )  verum,  but ,  is  stronger  than  sed,  but  is  less  frequently  used. 

c )  autem,  but  on  the  other  hand ,  however ,  marks  a  transition. 
It  is  always  post-positive. 

Definition.  A  post-positive  word  is  one  that  cannot  begin  a  sen¬ 
tence,  but  is  placed  after  one  or  more  words. 

d)  at,  but,  is  used  especially  in  disputation,  to  introduce  an 
opposing  argument. 

e)  atqul  means  but  yet. 

f )  tamen,  usually  stands  after  the  emphatic  word,  but  not 
always. 

g)  vero,  however ,  indeed,  in  tr7ith,  is  always  post-positive. 

Q 


226 


Syntax. 


2.  Note  the  correlative  expressions:  — 

non  solum  (non  modo)  .  .  .  sed  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also ; 
non  modo  non  .  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  only  not ,  but  not 

even ;  as, — 

non  modo  tibi  non  Irascor,  sed  ne  reprehends  quidem  factum 
tuum,  I  not  only  am  not  angry  with  you ,  but  I  do  not  even  blame 
your  action. 

a.  But  when  the  sentence  has  but  one  verb,  and  this  stands  with  the  second 
member,  non  modo  may  be  used  for  non  modo  non ;  as,  — 

adsentatio  non  modo  amlcS  sed  ne  libero  quidem  dig-na 

est,  flattery  is  not  only  not  worthy  of  a  friend ,  but  not  even  of  a 
free  man. 

344.  Illative  Conjunctions.  These  represent  the  state¬ 
ment  which  they  introduce  as  following  from  or  as  in  con - 
formity  with  what  has  preceded. 

i.  a)  itaque  =  and  so,  accordingly . 

b)  ergo  =  therefore,  accordingly . 

c )  igitur  (regularly  post-positive =  therefore ,  accordingly. 

2.  Igitur  is  never  combined  with  et,  atque,  -que,  or  neque. 

345.  Causal  Conjunctions.  These  denote  cause,  or  give 
an  explanation.  They  are  nam,  namque,  enim  (post-positive), 
etenim,  for. 

346.  Asyndeton.  The  conjunction  is  sometimes  omitted  be¬ 
tween  coordinate  members,  particularly  in  lively  or  impassioned 
narration.  Thus :  — 

a)  A  Copulative  Conjunction  is  omitted  ;  as,  — 

avaritia  Inflnlta  Insatiabilis  est,  avarice  is  boundless 

{and)  insatiable; 

Cn.  Pompejd,  M.  CrassS  consulibus,  in  the  consulship  of 

Gnaeus  Pompey  {and)  Marcus  Crassus. 

The  conjunction  is  regularly  omitted  between  the  names  of 
consuls  when  the  praenomen  {Marcus, Gams,  etc.)  is  expressed. 

b)  An  Adversative  Conjunction  may  be  omitted  ;  as,  — 
rationes  defuerunt,  ubertas  orationis  non  defuit,  argu¬ 
ments  were  lacking ;  {but)  abundance  of  words  was  not. 


1  Excfept  in  Sallust  and  Silver  Latin. 


Adverbs.  —  Word-Order. 


227 


ADVERBS. 

347.  I.  The  following  particles,  sometimes  classed  as 
Conjunctions,  are  more  properly  Adverbs  :  — 
etiam,  also,  even. 

quoque  (always  post-positive),  also. 

quidem  (always  post-positive)  lays  stress  upon  the  preceding  word. 
It  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  English  indeed,  in  fact,  but 
more  frequently  cannot  be  rendered,  except  by  vocal  emphasis, 
ne  .  quidem  means  not  even  ;  the  emphatic  word  or  phrase  always 
stands  between  ;  as,  ne  ille  quidem,  not  even  he. 
tamen  and  vero,  in  addition  to  their  use  as  Conjunctions,  are  often 
employed  as  Adverbs.  „ 

2.  Negatives.  Two  Negatives  are  regularly  equivalent  to  an 
affirmative  as  in  English,  as  non  null!,  some ;  but  when  non,  nemo, 
nihil,  numquam,  etc.,  are  accompanied  by  neque  .  .  .  neque,  non 
.  .  .  non,  non  modo,  or  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  the  latter  particles  simply 
take  up  the  negation  and  emphasize  it ;  as,  — 

habeo  hie  neminem  neque  amlcum  neque  cognatum,  /  have  here 
no  one,  neither  friend  nor  relative. 

non  enim  praetereundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  for  not  even  that  must 
be  passed  by. 

a.  Haud  in  Cicero  and  Caesar  occurs  almost  exclusively  as  a  modifier 
of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  and  in  the  phrase  haud  scio  an.  Later 
writers  use  it  freely  with  verbs. 


-*<>♦- 


Chapter  VII. —  Word-Order  and  Sentence- 

Structure . 

A.  WORD-ORDER. 

348.  In  the  normal  arrangement  of  the  Latin  sentence 
the  Subject  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the 
Predicate  at  the  end  ;  as,  — 

Darius  classem  qulngentarum  navium  comparavit,  Darius  got 
ready  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  ships. 


228 


Syntax. 


349.  But  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  the  normal  arrange¬ 
ment  is  often  abandoned,  and  the  emphatic  word  is  put 
at  the  beginning,  less  frequently  at  the  end  of  the  sen¬ 
tence  ;  as,  — 

magnus  in  hoc  bello  Themistocles  fuit,  great  was  Themistocles  in 

this  war ; 

aliud  iter  habemus  nullum,  other  course  we  have  none. 

SPECIAL  PRINCIPLES. 

350.  I.  Nouns.  A  Genitive  or  other  oblique  case  regularly  fol¬ 
lows  the  word  upon  which  it  depends.  Thus  :  — 

a)  Depending  upon  a  Noun  :  — 

tribunus  plebis,  tribune  of  the  piebs  ; 

fllius  regis,  sou  of  the  king ; 

vir  magni  animl,  a  man  of  noble  spirit . 

Yet  always  senatus  consultum,  plebis  scltum. 

b)  Depending  upon  an  Adjective  :  — 

ignarus  rerum,  ignorant  of  affairs ; 
digni  amlcitia,  worthy  of  friendship ; 
plus  aequo,  more  than  ( what  is)  fair. 

2.  Appositives.  An  Appositive  regularly  follows  its  Subject ; 
as,  — 

Philippus,  rex  Macedonum,  Philip ,  king  of  the  Macedonians  ; 
adsentatio,  vitiorum  adjutrlx,  flattery,  projnoter  of  evils. 

Yet  flumen  Rhenus,  the  River  Rhine ;  and  always  in  good  prose 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome. 

3.  The  Vocative  usually  follows  one  or  more  words  ;  as, — 

audl,  Caesar,  hear ,  Caesar  ! 

4.  Adjectives.  No  general  law  can  be  laid  down  for  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  Adjectives.  On  the  whole  they  precede  the  noun  oftener 
than  they  follow  it. 

a.  Adjectives  of  quantity  (including  numerals)  regularly  pre¬ 
cede  their  noun  ;  as,  — 

omnes  homines,  all  men ; 
septingentae  naves,  seven  hundred  vessels. 


Word-Order. 


229 


b .  Note  the  force  of  position  in  the  following :  — 

media  urbs,  the  middle  of  the  city  ; 
urbs  media,  the  middle  city  ; 
extremum  bellum,  the  end  of  the  war ; 

bellum  extremum,  the  last  war. 

c.  Romanus  and  Latlnus  regularly  follow  ;  as,  — • 

senatus  populusque  Romanus,  the  Roman  Senate  and 
People ; 

ludl  Romani,  the  Roman  games  ; 
feriae  Latlnae,  the  Latin  holidays. 

d.  When  a  Noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Geni¬ 
tive,  a  favorite  order  is  :  Adjective,  Genitive,  Noun  ;  as,  — 

summa  omnium  rerum  abundantia,  the  greatest  abun¬ 
dance  of  all  things. 

Pronouns. 

a.  The  Demonstrative,  Relative,  and  Interrogative  Pronouns 
regularly  precede  the  Noun  ;  as,  — 

hie  homo,  this  man  ; 
ille  homo,  that  man  ; 

erant  duo  itinera,  quibus  itineribus,  etc.,  there  were  two 
routes ,  by  which,  etc. 
qui  homo  ?  what  sort  of  a  man  ? 

b.  But  ille  in  the  sense  of  ‘  that  well  known,'  1  that  famous ,’ 
usually  stands  after  its  Noun  ;  as,  — 

testula  ilia,  that  well-known  custom  of  ostracism ; 

Medea  ilia,  that  famous  Medea. 

c.  Possessive  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  usually  follow  their 
Noun ;  as,  — 

pater  meus,  my  father ; 
homo  quldam,  a  certain  man ; 

mulier  aliqua,  some  woman. 

But  for  purposes  of  contrast  the  Possessive  often  precedes 
its  Noun  ;  as,  — 

meus  pater,  my  father  (i.e.  as  opposed  to  yoitrs,  his ,  etc.). 

d.  Where  two  or  more  Pronouns  occur  in  the  same  sentence, 
the  Latin  is  fond  of  putting  them  in  close  proximity ;  as, — 

nisi  forte  ego  vobis  cessare  videor,  urdess  perchayice  I 
seem  to  you  to  be  doing  nothing. 


230  Syntax. 

6.  Adverbs  and  Adverbial  phrases  regularly  precede  the  word  they 
modify ;  as,  — 

valde  dlligens,  extre77iely  diligent ; 
saepe  dlxl,  I  have  often  said ; 

te  jam  diu  hortamur,  we  have  long  been  urging  you  ; 
paulo  post,  a  little  after. 

7.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  the  words  they  govern. 

a.  But  limiting  words  often  intervene  between  the  Preposition 
and  its  case  ;  as,  — 

de  communi  hominum  memoria,  concerning  the  common 

memory  of  men ; 

ad  beate  vivendum,  for  living  happily. 

b.  When  a  noun  is  modified  by  an  Adjective,  the  Adjective  is 
often  placed  before  the  preposition  ;  as,  — 

magno  in  dolore,  i7i  great  grief; 
summa  cum  laude,  with  the  highest  credit ; 
qua  de  causa,  for  which  cause ; 
hanc  ob  rem,  on  account  of  this  thing. 

c.  For  Anastrophe,  by  which  a  Preposition  is  put  after  its  case,  see  §  144,  3. 

8.  Conjunctions.  Autem,  enim,  and  igitur  regularly  stand  in 
the  second  place  in  the  sentence,  but  when  combined  with  est  or 
sunt  they  often  stand  third ;  as,  — 

ita  est  enim, /hr  so  it  is. 

9.  Words  or  Phrases  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence  or  to  some 
part  of  it,  regularly  stand  first ;  as,  — 

id  ut  audlvit,  Corcyram  demigravit,  when  he  heard  that  (referring 
to  the  contents  of  the  preceding  sentence),  he  moved  to  Corcyra  ; 
eo  cum  Caesar  venisset,  timentes  conflrmat,  when  Caesar  had 
C077ie  thither  (i.e.  to  the  place  just  mentioned),  he  encouraged  the 

ti77iid. 

10.  The  Latin  has  a  fondness  for  putting  side  by  side  words  which 
are  etymologically  related  ;  as,  — 

ut  ad  senem  senex  de  senectute,  sTc  hoc  libro  ad  amlcum 
amicissimus  de  amTcitia  scrips!,  as  /,  a7i  old  77ian,  wrote  to 
an  old  77ian,  071  old  age ,  so  in  this  book ,  as  a  fond  friend ,  /  have 
writte7i  to  a  frierui  co7icer7ii7ig friendship. 


Word- Order, . 


231 


11.  Special  rhetorical  devices  for  indicating  emphasis  are  the 
following  :  — 

a)  Hypdrbaton,  which  consists  in  the  separation  of  words  that 
regularly  stand  together ;  as,  — 

Septimus  mihi  Orlginum  liber  est  in  manibus,  the 

seventh  book  of  my  1  Origines  ’  is  tinder  way ; 

recepto  Caesar  Orico  proficlscitur,  having  recovered 
Oricus,  Caesar  set  out. 

b)  Anaphora,  which  consists  in  the  repetition  of  the  same  word 
or  the  same  word-order  in  successive  phrases  ;  as,  — 

sed  pleni  omnes  sunt  libri,  plenae  sapientium  voces, 
plena  exemplorum  vetustas,  but  all  books  are  full  of 
it,  the  voices  of  sages  are  full  of  it,  antiquity  is  full  of 
examples  of  it. 

c)  Chiasmus,1  which  consists  in  changing  the  relative  order 
of  words  in  two  antithetical  phrases  ;  as,  — 

multos  defend!,  laesl  neminem,  many  have  /  defended,  / 
have  injured  no  one  ; 

horribilem  ilium  diem  alils,  nobis  faustum,  that  day 
dreadful  to  others,  for  us  fortunate. 

d)  Synchysis,  or  the  interlocked  arrangement.  This  is  mostly 
confined  to  poetry,  yet  occurs  in  rhetorical  prose,  especially 
that  of  the  Imperial  Period;  as, — 

simulatam  Pompejanarum  gratiam  partium,  pretended 
interest  in  the  Pompeian  party. 

12.  Metrical  Close.  At  the  end  of  a  sentence  certain  cadences 
were  avoided  ;  others  were  much  employed.  Thus  :  — 

a )  Cadences  avoided. 

_ w  w _ w  ;  as,  esse  videtur  (close  of  hexameter). 

_ w  ^  w  ;  as,  esse  potest  (close  of  pentameter). 

b)  Cadences  frequently  employed. 

_ \j _  ;  as,  auxerant. 

_  \j _ w  ;  as,  comprobavit. 

_ www  _ w  ;  as,  esse  videatur. 

w _ w _  ;  as,  rogatu  tuo. 


1  So  named  from  a  fancied  analogy  to  the  strokes  of  the  Greek  letter  X  {chi) . 
^US '  multos  laesl 

X 

defend!  neminem 


232 


Syntax . 


B.  SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 

351.  I.  Unity  of  Subject.  —  In  complex  sentences  the  Latin 
regularly  holds  to  unity  of  Subject  in  the  different  members;  as, — 
Caesar  primum  suo,  deinde  omnium  ex  conspectu  remotla 
equis,  ut  aequato  perlculo  spem  fugae  tolleret,  cohor- 
tatus  suos  proelium  commisit,  Caesar  having  first  removed 
his  own  horse  from  sight ,  then  the  horses  of  all,  in  order,  by 
making  the  danger  equal,  to  take  away  hope  of  flight ,  encouraged 
his  men  and  joined  battle. 

2.  A  word  serving  as  the  common  Subject  or  Object  of  the  main 
clause  and  a  subordinate  one,  stands  before  both  ;  as,  — 

Haedui  cum  se  defendere  non  possent,  legatos  ad  Caesarem 
mittunt,  since  the  Haedui  could  not  defend  themselves ,  they  sent 
envoys  to  Caesar ; 

ille  etsl  flagrabat  bellandl  cupiditate,  tamen  pad  serviendum 
putavit,  although  he  was  burning  with  a  desire  to  fight,  yet  he 
thought  he  ought  to  aim  at  peace. 

a.  The  same  is  true  also 

1)  When  the  Subject  of  the  main  clause  is  Object 
(Direct  or  Indirect)  of  a  subordinate  clause  ;  as, — 

Caesar,  cum  hoc  el  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficlscl,  when  this  had  been  reported  to  Caesar  he 
hastened  to  set  out  frotn  the  city. 

2)  When  the  Subject  of  a  subordinate  clause  is  at  the 
same  time  the  Object  (Direct  or  Indirect)  of  the  main 
clause ;  as,  — 

L.  Manlio,  cum  dictator  fuisset,  M.  Pomponius  tri- 
bunus  plebis  diem  dixit,  M.  Pomponius,  tribune  of 

the  people,  instituted  proceedings  against  Lucius  Man¬ 
lius  though  he  had  been  dictator. 

3.  Of  subordinate  clauses,  temporal,  conditional,  and  adversative 
clauses  more  commonly  precede  the  main  clause ;  indirect  questions 
and  clauses  of  purpose  or  result  more  commonly  follow  ;  as,  — 

postquam  haec  dixit,  profectus  est,  after  he  said  this,  he  set  out ; 
si  quis  ita  agat,  imprudens  sit,  if  any  one  should  act  so,  he  would 

be  devoid  of  foresight ; 

accidit  ut  una  nocte  omnes  Hermae  deicerentur,  it  happened 
that  in  a  single  night  all  the  Hermae  were  thrown  down. 


Sentence- Structure.  —  Hints  on  Style. 


233 


4.  Sometimes  in  Latin  the  main  verb  is  placed  within  the  sub¬ 
ordinate  clause ;  as,  — 

si  quid  est  in  me  ingem,  quod  sentio  quam  sit  exiguum,  if  there 
is  any  talent  in  me ,  and  /  know  how  little  it  is. 

5.  The  Latin  Period.  The  term  Period,  when  strictly  used, 
designates  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate  clauses  are 
inserted  within  the  main  clause ;  as,  — 

Caesar  etsl  intellegebat  qua  de  causa  ea  dicerentur,  tamen,  ne 
aestatem  in  Treveris  consumere  cogeretur,  Indutiomarum 
ad  se  venire  jussit,  though  Caesar  perceived  why  this  was 
said ,  yet,  lest  he  should  be  forced  to  spend  the  summer  among 
the  Treveri ,  he  ordered  Indutiomarus  to  come  to  him. 

In  the  Periodic  structure  the  thought  is  suspended  until  the  end  .of 
the  sentence  is  reached.  Many  Roman  writers  were  extremely  fond  of 
this  sentence-structure,  and  it  was  well  adapted  to  the  inflectional 
character  of  their  language  ;  in  English  we  generally  avoid  it. 

6.  When  there  are  several  subordinate  clauses  in  one  Period,  the 
Latin  so  arranges  them  as  to  avoid  a  succession  of  verbs.  Thus :  — 

At  hostes  cum  misissent,  qui,  quae  in  castris  gererentur,  cog- 
noscerent,  ubi  se  deceptos  intellexerunt,  omnibus  copils 
subsecuti  ad  flumen  contendunt,  but  the  enemy  when  they 
had  sent  men  to  learn  what  was  going  on  in  camp ,  after  dis¬ 
covering  that  they  had  been  outwitted ,  followed  with  all  their 
forces  a7id  hurried  to  the  river . 


-OOo- 


Chapter  VIII.  —  Hints  on  Latin  Style . 

352.  In  this  chapter  brief  consideration  is  given  to 
a  few  features  of  Latin  diction  which  belong  rather  to 
style  than  to  formal  grammar. 

NOUNS. 

353.  1.  Where  a  distinct  reference  to  several  persons  or  things  is 
involved,  the  Latin  is  frequently  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the 
Plural  than  is  the  English  ;  as, — 


234 


Syntax. 


domos  eunt,  they  go  home  (i.e.  to  their  homes)  ; 

German!  corpora  curant,  the  Germans  care  for  the  body ; 
animos  militum  recreat,  he  renews  the  courage  of  the  soldiers  ; 
dies  noctesque  time  re,  to  be  in  a  state  of  fear  day  and  night. 

2.  In  case  of  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively, 
the  Latin  often  employs  the  Plural  where  the  English  uses  the  Singu¬ 
lar;  as, — 

omnia  sunt  perdita,  everything  is  lost ; 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

haec  omnibus  pervulgata  sunt,  this  is  very  well  known  to  all. 

3.  The  Latin  is  usually  more  concrete  than  the  English,  and  espe¬ 
cially  less  bold  in  the  personification  of  abstract  qualities.  Thus :  — 

a  puero,  a  puerls,  from  boyhood ; 

Sulla  dictatore,  in  Sulla'1  s  dictatorship ; 
me  duce,  under  my  leadership ; 

Romani  cum  Carthaginiensibus  pacem  fecerunt  =  Rome  made 

peace  with  Carthage ; 

liber  doctrlnae  plenus  =  a  leartied  book ; 

prudentia  Themistoclis  Graecia  servata  est  =  Themistocles',s  fore¬ 
sight  saved  Greece. 

4.  The  Nouns  of  Agency  in  -tor  and  -sor  (see  §  147.  1)  denote  a 

permanent  or  characteristic  activity ;  as,  — 

accusatores  ( professional )  accusers ; 
oratores,  pleaders ; 
cantor es,  singers ; 

Arminius,  Germaniae  liberator,  Arminius ,  liberator  of  Germany. 

a.  To  denote  single  instances  of  an  action,  other  expressions  are 
commonly  employed ;  as,  — 

Numa,  qui  Romuld  successit,  Numa,  successor  of  Romulus ; 
qui  mea  legunt,  my  readers ; 
qui  me  audiunt,  my  auditors. 

5.  The  Latin  avoids  the  use  of  prepositional  phrases  as  modifiers  of 
a  Noun.  In  English  we  say :  ‘  The  war  agamst  Carthage  ’ ;  i  a  journey 
throjigh  Gaul 1 ;  ‘  cities  on  the  sea 1 ;  ‘  the  book  in  my  hands 1 ;  i  the  fight 
at  Salami's"1 ;  etc.  The  Latin  in  such  cases  usually  employs  another 
mode  of  expression.  Thus  :  — 

a)  A  Genitive;  as, — 

dolor  injuriarum,  resentment  at  injuries. 


Hints  on  Style. 


235 


ft)  An  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

urbes  maritimae,  cities  on  the  sea  ; 
pugna  Salamlnia,  the  fight  at  Salamis . 

c )  A  Participle  ;  as,  — 

pugna  ad  Cannas  facta,  the  battle  at  Cannae. 

d )  A  Relative  clause  ;  as,  — - 

liber  qul  in  mels  manibus  est,  the  book  in  my  hands. 

Note.  —  Yet  within  certain  limits  the  Latin  does  employ  Prepo¬ 
sitional  phrases  as  Noun  modifiers.  This  is  particularly  frequent 
when  the  governing  noun  is  derived  from  a  verb.  The  following  are 
typical  examples :  — 

transitus  ifi  Britanniam,  the  passage  to  Britain  ; 
excessus  e  vita,  departure  from  life ; 
odium  erga  Romanos,  hatred  of  the  Romans; 
liber  de  senectute,  the  book  071  old  age ; 
amor  in  patriam,  love  for  one's  coimtry. 

ADJECTIVES. 

354.  I.  Special  Latin  Equivalents  for  English  Adjec¬ 
tives  are  — 

ai)  A  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

virtutes  animl  =  77ioral  virtues  ; 

dolores  corporis  =  bodily  ills. 

b)  An  Abstract  Noun  ;  as, — 

no  vitas  rel  =  the  strange  circ7imsta7ice  ; 

asperitas  viarum  =  rough  roads. 

c )  Hendiadys  (see  §  374,  4)  ;  as,  — 
ratio  et  or  do  =  syste?7iatic  order  . 

ardor  et  impetus  =  eager  oiiset. 

d)  Sometimes  an  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

omnes  circa  popull,  all  the  surrounding  tribes ; 
suos  semper  hostes,  their  perpetual  foes. 

2.  Often  a  Latin  Noun  is  equivalent  to  an  English  Noun  modified 
by  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

doctrlna,  theoretical  knowledge ;  prudentia,  practical  knowledge; 
oppidum,  walled  town  ;  libellus,  little  book. 


236 


Syntax. 


3.  Adjectives  are  not  used  in  immediate  agreement  with  proper 
names ;  but  an  Adjective  may  limit  vir,  homo,  ille,  or  some  other 
word  used  as  an  Appositive  of  a  proper  name;  as, — 

Socrates,  homo  sapiens  =  the  wise  Socrates  ;  , 

Sclpio,  vir  fortissimus  =  the  doughty  Scipio  ; 

Syracusae,  urbs  praeclarissima  —  famous  Syracuse. 

4.  An  Adjective  may  be  equivalent  to  a  Possessive  or  Subjective 
Genitive ;  as  — 

pastor  regius,  the  shepherd  of  the  king ; 
tumultus  servllis,  the  uprising  of  the  slaves . 

PRONOUNS. 

355.  In  Compound  Sentences  the  Relative  Pronoun  has  a  fondness 
for  connecting  itself  with  the  subordinate  clause  rather  than  the  main 
one;  as, — 

a  quo  cum  quaereretur,  quid  maxime  expediret,  respondit,  when 
it  was  asked  of  him  what  was  best ,  he  replied.  (Less  commonly, 
qul,  cum  ab  eo  quaereretur,  respondit.) 

2.  Uterque,  ambo.  Uterque  means  each  of  two;  ambo  means 

both ;  as, — 

uterque  f rater  abiit,  each  of  the  two  brothers  departed  (i.e.  sepa¬ 
rately)  ; 

ambo  fratres  abierunt,  i.e.  the  two  brothers  departed  together. 
a.  The  Plural  of  uterque  occurs  — 

1)  With  Nouns. used  only  in  the  Plural-  (see  §  56)  ;  as, — 
in  utrlsque  castris,  in  each  camp. 

2)  Where  there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  two  groups  of 
persons  or  things  ;  as,  — 

utrlque  duces  clarl  fuerunt,  the  generals  on  each  side  (sev¬ 
eral  in  number)  were  famojts. 

\ 

VERBS. 

356.  I.  In  case  of  Defective  and  Deponent  Verbs,  a  Passive  is 
supplied :  — 

a )  By  the  corresponding  verbal  Nouns  in  combination  with 
esse,  etc. ;  as,  — 

in  odio  sumus,  we  are  hated ; 
in  invidia  sum,  /  am  envied ; 


Hints  on  Style. 


237 


admlrationl  est,  he  is  admired ; 

obllvione  obruitur,  he  is  forgotten  (lit.  is  overwhebned  by 
oblivion)  ; 

in  usu  esse,  to  be  used. 

b)  By  the  Passive  of  Verbs  of  related  meaning.  Thus  :  — 

agitarl  as  Passive  of  persequi ; 
temptarl  as  Passive  of  adorlrl. 

2.  The  lack  of  the  Perfect  Active  Participle  in  Latin  is  supplied  — 

a)  Sometimes  by  the  Perfect  Passive  Participle  of  the  Depo¬ 
nent ;  as, — 

adhortatus,  having  exhorted ; 
veritus,  hafihig  feared. 

b)  By  the  Ablative  Absolute  ;  as,  — 

hostium  agrls  vastatls  Caesar  exercitum  reduxit,  hav¬ 
ing  ravaged  the  country  of  the  enemy ,  Caesar  led  back 
his  army. 

c )  By  subordinate  clauses  ;  as,  — - 

eo  cum  advenisset,  castra  posuit,  having  arrived  there , 
he  pitched  a  camp  ; 

hostes  qul  in  urbem  irruperant,  the  enemy  having  burst 
into  the  city. 

3.  The  Latin  agrees  with  English  in  the  stylistic  employment  of 
the  Second  Person  Singular  in  an  indefinite  sense  (  =  1 one ’).  Cf. 
the  English  ‘You  can  drive  a  horse  to  water,  but  yo7i  can't  make  him 
drink?  But  in  Latin  this  use  is  mainly  confined  to  certain  varieties  of 
the  Subjunctive,  especially  the  Potential  (§  280),  Jussive  (§  275),  De¬ 
liberative  (§  277),  and  the  Subjunctive  in  conditional  sentences  of  the 
sort  included  under  §  302,  2,  and  303.  Examples  :  — 

videres,^w/  could  see ; 

utare  vlribus,  use  your  strength  ; 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  ma7i  ? 
mens  quoque  et  animus,  nisi  tamquam  lurninl  oleum  Instllles, 
exstinguuntur  senectute,  the  intellect  and  mind  too  are  ex¬ 
tinguished  by  old  age ,  unless ,  so  to  speak ,  you  keep  pouring  oil 
into  the  lamp ; 

tanto  amore  possessiones  suas  amplexl  tenebant,  ut  ab  els 
membra  dlvelll  citius  posse  dlceres,  they  clung  to  their  pos¬ 
sessions  with  such  an  affectionate  embrace ,  that  you  would  have 
said  their  limbs  could  sooner  be  tor 71  fro7/i  their  bodies. 


238 


Syntax. 


PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OP  THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

357.  i.  To  denote  1  so  many  years ,  etc.,  afterwards  or  before''  the 
Latin  employs  not  merely  the  Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  with 
post  and  ante  (see  §  223),  but  has  other  forms  of  expression.  Thus  :  — 

post  qulnque  annos,  five  years  afterward ; 
paucos  ante  dies,  a  few  days  before ; 
ante  quadriennium,yi??/r  years  before ; 

post  diem  quartum  quam  ab  urbe  discesseramus,/6wr  days  after 

we  had  left  the  city ; 

ante  tertium  annum  quam  decesserat,  three  years  before  he  had 

died. 

2.  The  Latin  seldom  combines  both  Subject  and  Object  with  the 
same  Infinitive  ;  as,  — 

Romanos  Hannibalem  vlcisse  constat. 

Such  a  sentence  would  be  ambiguous,  and  might  mean  either  that  the 
Romans  had  conquered  Hannibal,  or  that  Hannibal  had  conquered  the 
Romans.  Perspicuity  was  gained  by  the  use  of  the  Passive  Infini¬ 
tive;  as, — 

Romanos  ab  Hannibale  victos  esse  constat,  it  is  well  established 

that  the  Romans  were  defeated  by  Hannibal. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  THE  USE  OP 

THE  DATIVE. 

358.  1.  The  English  for  does  not  always  correspond  to  a  Dative 
notion  in  Latin,  but  is  often  the  equivalent  of  pro  with  the  Ablative, 
viz.  in  the  senses  — 

a)  In  defense  of ;  as,  — 

pro  p  atria  morl,  to  die  for  one's  C07intry. 

b)  Instead  of,  in  behalf  of ;  as,  — 

unus  pro  omnibus  dixit,  one  spoke  for  all ; 
haec  pro  lege  dicta  sunt,  these  things  were  said  for  the 
law. 

c)  In  proportion  to  ;  as,  — 

pr5  multitudine  hominum  eorum  fines  erant  angusti, 

for  the  population,  their  territory  was  small. 


Hints  on  Style.  239 

2.  Similarly,  English  to  when  it  indicates  motion  is  rendered  in 
Latin  by  ad. 

a.  Note,  however,  that  the  Latin  may  say  either  scrlbere  ad 
aliquem,  or  scrlbere  alicui,  according  as  the  idea  of  motion 
is  or  is  not  predominant.  So  in  several  similar  expressions. 

3.  In  the  poets,  verbs  of  mingling  with ,  contending  with ,  joining, 
clingmg  to,  etc.,  sometimes  take  the  Dative.  This  construction  is  a 
Grecism.  Thus :  — 

se  miscet  viris,  he  mingles  with  the  men ; 
contendis  Homero,  you  contend  with  Homer; 

dextrae  dextram  jungere,  to  clasp  hand  with  hand. 

♦ 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  GENITIVE. 

359.  1.  The  Possessive  Genitive  gives  emphasis  to  the  possessor, 
the  Dative  of  Possessor  emphasizes  the  fact  of  possession ;  as,  — 

hortus  patris  est,  the  garden  is  my  father's ; 

mihi  hortus  est,  I  possess  a  garden. 

2.  The  Latin  can  say  either  stultl  or  stultum  est  dlcere,  it  is 
foolish  to  say;  but  Adjectives  of  one  ending  permit  only  the  Geni¬ 
tive  ;  as,  — 

sapientis  est  haec  secum  reputare,  it  is  the  part  of  a  wise  man  to 
consider  this. 


Part  VI. 


— ♦ — 

PROSODY. 

— ♦ — 

360.  Prosody  treats  of  metres  and  versification. 

361.  Latin  Verse.  Latin  Poetry  was  essentially  different 
in  character  from  English.  In  our  own  language,  poetry  is 
based  upon  accent ,  and  poetical  form  consists  essentially  in 
a  certain  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 
Latin  poetry,  on  the  other  hand,  was  based  not  upon 
accent,  but  upon  quantity ,  so  that  with  the  Romans  poeti¬ 
cal  form  consisted  in  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short 
syllables ,  i.e.  of  long  and  short  intervals  of  time. 

This  fundamental  difference  in  the  character  of  English 
and  Latin  poetry  is  a  natural  result  of  the  difference  in 
character  of  the  two  languages.  English  is  a  strongly 
accented  language,  in  which  quantity  is  relatively  subordi¬ 
nate.  Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  quantitative  lan¬ 
guage,  in  which  accent  was  relatively  subordinate. 

QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS  AND  SYLLABLES. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

362.  The  general  principles  for  the  quantity  of  vowels 
and  syllables  have  been  given  above  in  §  5.  The  following 
peculiarities  are  to  be  noted  here  :  — 

1.  A  vowel  is  usually  short  when  followed  by  another  vowel 
(§  5.  A.  2),  but  the  following  exceptions  occur:  — 

240 


Quantity  of  Vowels  and  Syllables . 


241 


a )  In  the  Genitive  termination  -lus  (except  alterius)  ;  as,  illlus, 
totlus.  Yet  the  i  may  be  short  in  poetry  ;  as,  illius,  totius. 

b )  In  the  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ; 
as,  diel,  aciel.  But  fidel,  rel,  spel  (§  52,  1). 

c)  In  flo,  excepting  fit  and  forms  where  i  is  followed  by  er. 
Thus  :  flebam,  flat,  flunt ;  but  fieri,  fierem. 

d )  In  a  few  other  words,  especially  words  derived  from  the 
Greek ;  as,  dlus,  Aeneas,  Darius,  heroes,  etc. 

2.  A  diphthong  is  usually  long  (§  5.  B.  2),  but  the  preposition 
prae  in  composition  is  often  shortened  before  a  vowel ;  as,  praeacutus. 

3.  A  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants 
(§5 .  B.  2)  is  long,  even  when  one  of  the  consonants  is  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  word ;  as,  terret  populum.  Occasionally  the  syllable  is  long 
when  both  consonants  are  in  the  following  word;  as,  pro  segete 
splcas. 

4.  Compounds  of  jacio,  though  written  inicit,  adicit,  etc.,  have 
the  first  syllable  long,  as  though  written  inj-,  adj-. 

5.  Before  j,  S.  and  e  made  a  long  syllable,  e.g.  in  major,  pejor, 
ejus,  ejusdem,  Pompejus,  rejecit,  etc.  These  were  pronounced, 
mai-jor,  pei-jor,  ei-jus,  Fompei-jus,  rei-jecit,  etc.  So  also  some¬ 
times  before  i,  e.g.  Pompe-I,  pronounced  Pompei-I;  re-icio,  pro¬ 
nounced  rei-icio. 


Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 

A.  Final  Syllables  ending  in  a  Vowel. 

363.  1.  Final  a  is  mostly  short,  but  is  long :  — 

a )  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  First  Declension;  as,  porta. 

b)  In  the  Imperative  ;  as,  lauda. 

c )  In  indeclinable  words  (except  ita,  quiS)  ;  as,  trlginta,  con¬ 
tra,  postea,  interea,  etc. 

2.  Final  e  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  — 

a)  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension ;  as, 
die,  re;  hence  hodie,  quare.  Here  belongs  also  fame 
(§  59-  2.  b). 

b)  In  the  Imperative  of  the  Second  Conjugation;  as,  mone, 
habe,  etc.;  yet  occasionally  cavg,  valS. 

c)  In  Adverbs  derived  from  Adjectives  of  the  Second  Declen¬ 
sion,  along  with  fere  and  ferme.  Beng,  malS,  temere, 
saepg  have  e. 

d)  In  e,  de,  me,  te,  se,  ne  (not,  lest),  ne  (verily). 


242 


Prosody . 


3.  Final  i  is  usually  long,  but  is  short  in  nisi  and  quasi.  Mihi, 
tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubi,  have  regularly  1,  but  sometimes  I;  yet  always 
ibidem,  ibique,  ublque. 

4.  Final  o  is  regularly  long,  but  is  short  — 

a)  In  eg6,  duo,  modo  (only),  cito. 

b)  Rarely  in  the  First  Person  Singular  of  the  Verb,  and  in 
Nominatives  of  the  Third  Declension  ;  as,  amo,  led. 

c)  In  a  few  compounds  beginning  with  the  Preposition  pro, 
especially  before  f ;  as  profundere,  prdficisci,  prdfugere. 

5.  Final  u  is  always  long. 

B.  Final  Syllables  ending  in  a  Consonant. 

364.  1.  Final  syllables  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  s  are 
short.  The  following  words,  however,  have  a  long  vowel :  sal,  sol, 
Lar,  par,  ver,  fur,  die,  due,  en,  non,  quin,  sin,  sic,  cur,  hie  1 
(this).  Also  adverbs  in  c  ;  as,  hie,  hue,  istic,  illuc,  etc . 

2.  Final  syllables  in  -as  are  long  ;  as,  terras,  amas. 

3.  Final  syllables  in  -es  are  regularly  long,  but  are  short  — 

a)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  dental  stems 
(§  33)  °f  the  Third  Declension  which  have  a  short  penult  in 
the  Genitive;  as,  seges  (segetis),  obses  (obsidis),  milgs, 
dives.  But  a  few  have  -es  ;  viz.  pes,  aries,  abies,  paries. 

b)  In  es  (thou  art),  penes. 

4.  Final  -os  is  usually  long,  but  short  in  6s  (ossis),  compds, 
impds. 

5.  Final  -is  is  usually  short,  but  is  long —  • 

a)  in  Plurals;  as,  portis,  hortis,  nobis,  vobls,  nubis  (Acc.). 

b)  In  the  Second  Person  Singular  Perfect  Subjunctive  Ac¬ 
tive,  as  amaveris,  monueris,  audiveris,  etc.  Yet  occasional 
exceptions  occur. 

c)  In  the  Second  Person  Singular  Present  Indicative  Active  of 
the  Fourth  Conjugation;  as,  audis. 

d)  In  vis ,  force',  is,  thou  goest ;  fis  ;  sis;  veils;  nolis ;  vis, 
thou  wilt  (mavis,  quamvis,  quivis,  etc.) . 

6.  Final  -us  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  — 

a)  In  the  Genitive  Singular  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Plural  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ;  as,  fructus. 


1  Rarely  Me. 


Vei  'se-  S  tructu  re. 


243 


b)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  those  nouns  of 
the  Third  Declension  in  which  the  u  belongs  to  the  stem ; 
as,  palus  (-udis),  servitus  (-utis),  tellus  (-uris). 

365.  Greek  Nouns  retain  in  Latin  their  original  quantity ;  as, 
Aenea,  epitome,  Delos,  Pallas,  Simois,  Salamis,  DIdus,  Paridi, 
aer,  aether,  crater,  heroas.  Yet  Greek  nouns  in  -up  regularly 
shorten  the  vowel  of  the  final  syllable  ;  as,  rhetor,  Hectdr. 

VERSE-STRUCTURE. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

366.  1.  The  metrical  unit  in  versification  is  a  short  syllable,  tech¬ 
nically  called  a  mora  (w).  A  long  syllable  ( _ )  is  regarded  as  equiva¬ 

lent  to  two  morae. 

2.  A  Foot  is  a  group  of  syllables.  The  following  are  the  most 
important  kinds  of  fundamental  feet:  — 

Feet  of  Three  Morae. 

_ w  Trochee. 

w _  Iambus. 

3.  A  Verse  is  a  succession  of  feet. 

4.  The  different  kinds  of  verses  are  named  Trochaic,  Iambic,  Dac¬ 
tylic,  Anapaestic,  according  to  the  foot  which  forms  the  basis  of  their 
structure. 

5.  Ictus.  In  every  fundamental  foot  the  long  syllable  naturally  re¬ 
ceives  the  greater  prominence.  This  prominence  is  called  ictus.1  It  is 
denoted  thus :  Z.u  v;  Zw 

6.  Thesis  and  Arsis.  The  syllable  which  receives  the  ictus  is 
called  the  thesis  ;  the  rest  of  the  foot  is  called  the  arsis. 

7.  Elision.  Final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel,  a  diphthong,  or  -m 
are  regularly  elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.  In 
reading,  we  ordinarily  omit  the  elided  syllable  entirely.  Probably  the 
ancients  slurred  the  words  together  in  some  way.  This  may  be  indi¬ 
cated  as  follows  :  corpore  in  uno  ;  multum  ille  et ;  monstrum  hor- 
rendum ;  causae  Irarum. 

a .  Omission  of  elision  is  called  Hiatus.  It  occurs  especially  before  and 
after  monosyllabic  Interjections ;  as,  O  et  praesidium. 


Feet  of  Four  Morae. 
—  \j  \j  Dactyl. 
v_/  w _  Anapaest. 


1  Ictus  was  not  accent,  —  neither  stress  accent  nor  musical  accent,  —  but  was 
simply  the  quantitative  prominence  inherent  in  a  long  syllable. 


244 


Prosody. 


8.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called  a  Caesura  {cutting). 
Every  verse  usually  has  one  prominent  caesura.  The  ending  of  a  word 
and  foot  together  within  the  verse  is  called  a  diaeresis. 

9.  Verses  are  distinguished  as  Catalectic  or  Acatalectic.  A  Cata- 
lectic  verse  is  one  in  which  the  last  foot  is  not  complete,  but  lacks  one 
or  more  syllables  ;  an  Acatalectic  verse  has  its  last  foot  complete. 

10.  At  the  end  of  a  verse  a  slight  pause  occurred.  Hence  the  final 
syllable  may  be  either  long  or  short  (syllaba  anceps),  and  may  ter¬ 
minate  in  a  vowel  or  m,  even  though  the  next  verse  begins  with 
a  vowel. 

11.  Iambic,  Trochaic,  and  Anapaestic  verses  are  further  designated 
as  dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter,  according  to  the  number  of  dipodies 
(pairs  of  feet)  which  they  contain.  Dactylic  verses  are  measured  by 
single  feet ,  and  are  designated  as  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter, 
accordingly. 

SPECIAL  PECULIARITIES. 

367.  1.  Synizdsis  (Synadresis).  Two  successive  vowels  in  the 
interior  of  a  word  are  often  united  into  a  long  syllable  ;  as,  — 

aurels,  deinde,  antelre,  deesse. 

2.  Diastole.  A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long;  as, — 

videt,  audit. 

3.  Systole.  A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short;  as, — 

steterunt. 

a.  Diastole  and  Systole  are  not  mere  arbitrary  processes.  They 
usually  represent  an  earlier  pronunciation  which  had  passed 
out  of  vogue  in  the  ordinary  speech. 

4.  After  a  consonant,  i  and  u  sometimes  become  j  and  v.  The  • 
preceding  syllable  then  becomes  long;  as, — 

abjete  for  abiete  ;  genva  for  genua. 

5.  Sometimes  v  becomes  u  ;  as,  — 

silua  for  silva  ;  dissoluo  for  dissolvo. 

6.  Sometimes  a  verse  has  an  extra  syllable.  Such  a  verse  is 
called  an  Hypdrmeter.  The  extra  syllable  ends  in  a  vowel  01 
-m,  and  is  united  with  the  initial  vowel  or  h  of  the  next  verse  by 
Synaphdia.  Thus :  — 

. ignarl  hominumque  locorumque'-' 

erramus. 


Verse- Structure. 


245 

7.  Tmesis  {cutting).  Compound  words  are  occasionally  separated 
into  their  elements  5  as,  — 

qu5  me  cunque  rapit  tempestas,  for  quocunque,  etc. 

8.  Syncope.  A  short  vowel  is  sometimes  dropped  between  two 
consonants ;  as,  — 

repo^tus  for  repositus. 

THE  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

368.  1.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  or  Heroic  Verse, 

consists  theoretically  of  six  dactyls.  But  in  all  the  feet 

except  the  fifth,  a  spondee  ( _ )  may  take  the  place  of 

the  dactyl.  The  sixth  foot  may  be  either  a  spondee  or  a 
trochee,  since  the  final  syllable  of  a  verse  may  be  either 
long  or  short  (syllaba  anceps).  The  following  represents 
the  scheme  of  the  verse  :  — 

X-OO ,  Loo,  /_w) 

2.  Sometimes  we  find  a  spondee  in  the  fifth  foot.  Such  verses  are 
called  Spondaic.  A  dactyl  usually  stands  in  the  fourth  place,  and  the 
fifth  and  sixth  feet  are  generally  made  up  of  a  quadrisyllable  ;  as,  — 

armatumque  auro  circumspicit  Orlona 

cara  deum  suboles,  magnum  Jovis  incrementum. 

3.  Caesura. 

a)  The  favorite  position  of  the  caesura  in  the  Dactylic  Hexam¬ 
eter  is  after  the  thesis  of  the  third  foot ;  as, — 

arma  virumque  cano  ||  Trojae  qul  primus  ab  oris. 

b)  Less  frequently  the  caesura  occurs  after  the  thesis  of  the 
fourth  foot,  usually  accompanied  by  another  in  the  second 
foot ;  as,  — 

inde  toro  ||  pater  Aeneas  ||  sic  5rsus  ab  alto  est. 

c)  Sometimes  the  caesura  occurs  between  the  two  short  syl¬ 
lables  of  the  third  foot ;  as,  — 

O  passl  graviora  ||  dabit  deus  his  quoque  flnem. 

This  caesura  is  called  Feminine,  as  opposed  to  the  caesura 
after  a  long  syllable,  which  is  called  Masculine  (as  under 
a  and  b). 


246 


Prosody. 


d )  A  pause  sometimes  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot. 
This  is  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis,  as  it  was  borrowed  by 
the  Romans  from  the  Bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  Thus  :  — 

solstitium  pecori  defendite  ;  JJ  jam  venit  aestas. 

DACTYLIC  PENTAMETER. 

369.  1.  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts, 
each  of  which  contains  two  dactyls,  followed  by  a  long 
syllable.  Spondees  may  take  the  place  of  the  dactyls 
in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second.  The  long  syllable 
at  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  verse  always  ends  a 
word.  The  scheme  is  the  following  :  — 

—  00  00  d—  II  ww  —  va j 

2.  The  Pentameter  is  never  used  alone,  but  only  in  connection  with 
the  Hexameter.  The  two  arranged  alternately  form  the  so-called  Ele¬ 
giac  Distich.  Thus:  — 

Vergilium  vidl  tantum,  nec  amara  TibullS 
Tempus  amicitiae  fata  dedere  meae. 

IAMBIC  MEASURES. 

370.  1.  The  most  important  Iambic  verse  is  the  Iambic 
Trimeter  (§  366.  1 1),  called  also  Senarius.  This  is  an  acata- 
lectic  verse.  It  consists  of  six  Iambi.  Its  pure  form  is  :  — 

\J  _  W  _  \J  _  _  \J  _  w  _ 

Beatus  ille  qul  procul  liegotils. 

The  Caesura  usually  occurs  in  the  third  foot;  less  fre¬ 
quently  in  the  fourth. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Iambus,  a  Tribrach  (w  w  w)  may  stand  in  any 
foot  but  the  last.  In  the  odd  feet  (first,  third,  and  fifth)  may  stand  a 
Spondee,  Dactyl,  or  Anapaest,  though  the  last  two  are  less  frequent. 
Sometimes  a  Proceleusmatic  (w  w  w  w)  occurs. 

3.  In  the  Latin  comic  writers,  Plautus  and  Terence,  great  free¬ 
dom  is  permitted,  and  the  various  equivalents  of  the  Iambus,  viz. 
the  Dactyl,  Anapaest,  Spondee,  Tribrach,  Proceleusmatic,  are  freely 
admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


SUPPLEMENTS  TO  THE  GRAMMAR. 


- ♦ - 

I.  JULIAN  CALENDAR. 

371.  I.  The  names  of  the  Roman  months  are :  Januarius,  Februa- 
rius,  Martius,  Aprllis,  Majus,  Junius,  Julius  (Qulntllis  1  prior  to 
46  B.C.),  Augustus  (Sextilis 1  before  the  Empire),  September,  Octo¬ 
ber,  November,  December.  These  words  are  properly  Adjectives 
in  agreement  with  mensis  understood. 

2.  Dates  were  reckoned  from  three  points  in  the  month :  — 

a)  The  Calends,  the  first  of  the  month. 

b)  The  Nones,  usually  the  fifth  of  the  month,  but  the  seventh 
in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

c )  The  Ides,  usually  the  thirteenth  of  the  month,  but  the  fif¬ 
teenth  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

3.  From  these  points  dates  were  reckoned  backward;  consequently 
all  days  after  the  Ides  of  any  month  were  reckoned  as  so  many  days 
before  the  Calends  of  the  month  next  following. 

4.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  of  any  month  is 
designated  as  prldie  Kalendas,  Nonas,  idus.  The  second  day  be¬ 
fore  was  designated  as  die  tertio  ante  Kalendas,  Nonas,  etc.  Simi¬ 
larly  the  third  day  before  was  designated  as  die  quarto,  and  so  on. 
These  designations  are  arithmetically  inaccurate,  but  the  Romans 
reckoned  both  ends  of  the  series.  The  Roman  numeral  indicating  the 
date  is  therefore  always  larger  by  one  than  the  actual  number  of  days 
before  Nones,  Ides,  or  Calends. 

5.  In  indicating  dates,  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form 
of  an  Adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendas,  Nonas,  Idus.  Various  forms 
of  expression  occur,  of  which  that  given  under  d)  is  most  common:  — 

d)  die  qulnto  ante  Idus  Martias ; 

b )  qulntd  ante  Idus  Martias  ; 

c)  qulnto  (V)  Idus  Martias ; 

d )  ante  diem  qulntum  Idus  Martias. 


1  Originally  the  Roman  year  began  with  March.  This  explains  the  names 
Qulntilis,  Sextilis,  September,  etc.,  fifth  month,  sixth  month,  etc. 

247 


248 


Supplements  to  the  Grammar. 


6.  These  designations  may  be  treated  as  nouns  and  combined  with 
the  prepositions  in,  ad,  ex  ;  as,  — 

ad  ante  diem  IV  Kalendas  Octobres,  up  to  the  2%th  of  September. 
ex  ante  diem  qulntum  idus  Octobres,  front  the  1 1  th  of  October. 

7.  In  leap  year  the  25th  was  reckoned  as  the  extra  day  in  February. 
The  24th  was  designated  as  ante  diem  VI  Kalendas  Martias,  and 
the  25th  as  ante  diem  bis  VI  Kal.  Mart. 


372.  CALENDAR. 


Days 
of  the 
Month. 

March,  May,  July, 
October. 

January,  August, 
December. 

April,  June,  Sep¬ 
tember,  November. 

February. 

I 

KalendIs 

KalendIs. 

KalendIs. 

KALENDIS. 

2 

VI. 

Nonas. 

IV. 

Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

3 

V. 

4  4 

III. 

II 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV. 

44 

Prldie  Nonas. 

Prldie  Nonas. 

Prldie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

Cl 

Nonis. 

Nonis. 

NonIs. 

6 

Prldie  Nonas. 

VIII. 

Idus. 

VII  t.  fdus. 

VIII.  Idus. 

7 

Nonis. 

VII. 

II 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII. 

Idus. 

VI. 

II 

VI. 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

41 

V. 

II 

V. 

V. 

10 

VI. 

41 

IV. 

II 

IV. 

IV. 

11 

V. 

41 

III. 

II 

III. 

III. 

12 

IV. 

14 

Prldie  Idus. 

Prldie  Idus. 

Prldie  Idus. 

13 

III. 

44 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

Idibus. 

14 

Prldie  Idus. 

XIX. 

Kalend. 

XVIII.  Kalend. 

XVI.  Kalend. 

15 

Id  1  BUS. 

XVIII. 

41 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVII. 

Kalend. 

XVII. 

14 

XVI. 

XIV. 

1 7 

XVI. 

44 

XVI. 

II 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

44 

XV. 

II 

XIV. 

XII. 

19 

XIV. 

41 

XIV. 

II 

XIII. 

XI. 

20 

XIII. 

44 

XIII. 

II 

XII. 

X. 

21 

XII. 

II 

XII. 

II 

XI. 

IX. 

22 

XI. 

14 

XI. 

II 

X. 

VIII. 

23 

X. 

14 

X. 

14 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

14 

IX. 

41 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 

VIII. 

II 

VIII. 

II 

VII. 

V.  (VI.)  “ 

26 

VII. 

41 

VII. 

44 

VI. 

IV.  (V.)  “ 

27 

VI. 

41 

VI. 

44 

V. 

III.  (IV.)  “ 

28 

V. 

41 

V. 

41 

IV. 

Prid.  Kal.  (Ill  Kal.) 

29 

IV. 

41 

IV. 

14 

III. 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

30 

III. 

44 

III. 

41 

Prldie  Kalend. 

(Enclosed  forms  are 

3i 

Prldie  Kalend. 

Prldie  Kalend. 

for  leap-year.) 

Figures  of  Syntax. 


249 


II.  PROPER  NAMES. 

< 

373.  1.  The  name  of  a  Roman  citizen  regularly  consisted  of  three 
parts  :  the  praenomen  (or  given  name),  the  nomen  (name  of  the  gens 
or  clan),  and  the  cognomen  (family  name).  Such  a  typical  name  is 
exemplified  by  M5rcus  Tullius  Cicero,  in  which  Marcus  is  the  prae¬ 
nomen,  Tullius  the  nomen,  and  Cicero  the  cognomen.  Sometimes 
a  second  cognomen  (in  later  Latin  called  an  agnomen)  is  added  — 
especially  in  honor  of  military  achievements ;  as,  — 

Gaius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus. 


2.  Abbreviations ‘of  Proper  Names. 


A.  =  Aulus. 
App.  =  Appius. 

C.  =  Gaius. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus. 

D.  =  Decimus. 

K.  =  Kaeso. 

L.  =  Lucius. 

M.  =  Marcus. 
M’.  =  Manius. 


Mam.  =  Mamercus. 
N.  =  Numerius. 

P.  —  Publius. 

Q.  =  Quintus. 
Sex.  =  Sextus. 
Ser.  =  Servius. 

Sp.  =  Spurius. 

T.  =  Titus. 

Ti.  =  Tiberius. 


III.  FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX  AND  RHETORIC. 

A.  Figures  of  Syntax. 

374.  1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  ;  as,  — 
quid  multa,  why  ( should  /  say)  much  f 

2.  Brachylogy  is  a  brief  or  condensed  form  of  expression  ;  as,  — 

ut  ager  sine  cultura  fructuosus  esse  non  potest,  sic  sine  doc- 
trina  animus,  as  a  field  cannot  be  productive  without  cultiva¬ 
tion,  so  the  mind  {cannot  be  productive)  without  learning. 

Special  varieties  of  Brachylogy  are  — 

a)  Zeugma,  in  which  one  verb  is  made  to  stand  for  two  ;  as,  — 
minis  aut  blandimentis  corrupta  =  {terrified)  by  threats 

or  corrupted  by  flattery. 

b)  Compendiary  Comparison,  by  which  a  modifier  of  an 
object  is  mentioned  instead  of  the  object  itself ;  as,  — 
dissimilis  erat  Chares  eorum  et  factis  et  moribus,  lit. 

Chares  was  different  from  their  conduct  and  character , 
i.e.  Chares's  conduct  and  character  were  different,  etc. 


250 


Figures,  of  Syntax  and  Rhetoric. 


3.  Pleonasm  is  an  unnecessary  fullness  of  expression;  as, — 

prius  praedicam,  lit.  I  will  first  say  in  advatice. 

4.  Hendladys  (ey  81a  Svoiy,  one  through  two )  is  the  use  of  two 
nouns  joined  by  a  conjunction,  in  the  sense  of  a  noun  modified  by  a 
Genitive  or  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

febris  et  aestus,  the  heat  of  fever ; 
celeritate  cursuque,  by  swift  naming. 

5.  Prolepsis,  or  Anticipation,  is  the  introduction  of  an  epithet 
in  advance  of  the  action  which  makes  it  appropriate ;  as,  — 
submersas  obrue  puppes,  lit.  overwhelm  their  submerged  ships , 

i.e.  overwhelm  and  sink  their  ships. 

a.  The  name  Prolepsis  is  also  applied  to  the  introduction  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun  as  object  of  the  main  clause  where  we  should  expect 
it  to  stand  as  subject  of  a  subordinate  clause.  Thus  :  — 
nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit,  yoit  know  how  slow 
Marcellus  is  (lit.  you  know  Marcellas,  how  slow  he  is). 
Both  varieties  of  Prolepsis  are  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

6.  Anacoluthon  is  a  lack  of  grammatical  consistency  in  the  con  • 
struction  of  the  sentence  ;  as, — 

turn  AncI  fllil  .  .  .  impensius  els  indignitas  crescere,  then  the  son j 

of  Ancus  .  .  .  their  indignation  incr eased  all  the  more. 

7.  Hysteron  Prdteron  consists  in  the  inversion  of  the  natural 
order  of  two  words  or  phrases  ;  as, — 

moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus  =  let  us  rush  into  the  midst  of 

arms  and  die. 

B.  Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

375.  1.  Litotes  (literally  softening)  is  the  expression  of  an  idea 
by  the  denial  of  its  opposite ;  as,  — 

haud  parum  laboris,  no  little  toil  (i.e.  much  toil)  ; 
non  ignord,  /  dm  not  ignorant  (i.e.  I  am  well  aware). 

2.  Oxymoron  is  the  combination  of  contradictory  conceptions; 

as>  —  *  sapiens  insania,  wise  folly. 

3.  Alliteration  is  the  employment  of  a  succession  of  words 
presenting  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  letter  (mostly  initial)  ; 
as,  sensim  sine  sensu  aetas  senescit. 

4.  Onomatopoeia  is  the  suiting  of  sound  to  sense  ;  as, — 
quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum,  ‘  And  shake 

with  horny  hoofs  the  solid  ground.' 


INDEX  TO  THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  THE 
MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


Note.  —  Compounds  are  not  given  unless  they  present  some  special  irregularity.  The 
references  are  to  sections. 


A. 

abdo,  122,  I,  2. 
abicio,  122,  III. 
abnuo,  122,  II. 
aboleo,  121,  I. 
absterged,  121,  III. 
absum,  125. 
accendo,  122,  I,  4. 
accidit,  138,  III. 
acrid,  121,  I,  N. 
accipio,  122,  III. 
acquiro,  122,  I,  6. 
acuo,  122,  II. 
addo,  122,  I,  2. 
adhaeresco,  122,  IV,  2. 
adiplscor,  122,  V. 
adolesco,  122,  IV,  1. 
adsum,  125. 
advenio,  123,  IV. 
affero,  129. 
afficio,  122,  III. 
affligo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
agndsco,  122,  IV,  1. 
ago, 122,  I,  3. 
algeo,  121,  III. 
aid,  122,  I,  5. 
amicio,  123,  III. 
amo,  120,  I. 
amplector,  122,  V. 
ango,  122,  I,  7. 
aperio,  123,  II. 
appeto,  122,  I,  6. 
arced,  121,  II,  a. 
arcesso,  122,  I,  6. 
ardeo,  121,  III. 
aresco,  122,  IV,  2. 
arguo,  122,  II. 


ascendo,  122,  I,  4. 
aspicio,  122,  III. 
assentior,  123,  VII. 
assuefacio,  122,  III. 
assueflo,  122,  III. 
audio,  123,  I. 
aufero,  129. 
augeo,  121,  III. 
aveo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

C.- 

cado,  122,  I,  2. 
caedo,  122,  I,  2. 
calefacio,  122,  III. 
caleflo,  122,  III. 
caleo,  121,  II,  a. 
calesco,  122,  IV,  2. 
cano,  122,  I,  2. 
capesso,  122,  I,  6. 
capio,  122,  III. 
cared,  121,  II,  a. 
carpo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
caved,  121,  V. 
cedo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
censed,  121,  II,  b. 
cerno,  122,  I,  6. 
cieo,  121,  I. 
cingo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
circumsisto,  122,  I,  2. 
claudo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
claudo,  122,  I,  7. 
coemo,  122,  I,  3. 
coepi,  133. 
coerceo,  121,  II,  a. 
cognosco,  122,  IV,  1. 
cdgo,  122,  I,  3. 
colligo,  122,  1,  3. 

251 


cold,  122,  I,  5. 
comminlscor,  122,  V. 
comperid,  123,  V. 
compleo,  121,  I. 
concutio,  122,  III. 
condo,  122,  I,  2. 
conferd,  129. 
confiteor,  121,  VII. 
congruo,  122,  II. 
cdnsenesco,  122,  IV,  2. 
conserd,  122,  I,  5. 
conserd,  122,  1,6  {plant). 
cdnsldo,  122,  I,  4. 
cdnsisto,  122,  I,  2. 
conspicio,  122,  III. 
constat,  138,  III. 
constitud,  122,  II. 
cdnsuesco,  122,  IV,  1. 
consulo,  122,  I,  5. 
contineo,  121,  II,  b. 
contingit,  138,  III. 
coquo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
crepo,  120,  II. 
cresco,  122,  IV,  1. 
cubo,  120,  II. 
cupio,  122,  III. 
curro,  122,  I,  2. 

D. 

debeo,  121,  II,  a. 
decerno,  122,  I,  6. 
decet,  138,  II. 
dedecet,  138,  II. 
dedo,  122,  I,  2. 
defendo,  122,  I,  4. 
deled,  121,  I. 
deligo,  122,  I,  3. 


252 


Index  to  the  Principal  Parts 


demo,  122,  I,  3. 
desero,  122,  I,  5. 
desino,  122,  I,  6. 
desum,  125. 
died,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
differo,  129. 
diligo^i22,  I,  3. 
dlmicd,  120,  II. 
dirimo,  122,  I,  3. 
diripio,  122,  III. 
dlruo,  122,  II. 
discerno,  122,  I,  6. 
disco,  122,  IV,  1. 
dissero,  122,  I,  5. 
distinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
dlvido,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
d5,  127. 

doeeo,  121,  II,  b. 
doleo,  121,  II,  a. 
domo,  120,  II. 
duco,  122,  I,  x,  a. 

E. 

edo,  122,  I,  2. 
odd,  122,  I,  3. 
effero,  129. 
effugio,  122,  III. 
egeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
elicio,  122,  III. 
emineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
emo,  122,  I,  3. 
eo,  132. 

esurio,  123,  VI. 
evado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
evanesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
excolo,  122,  I,  5. 
excudo,  122,  I,  4. 
exerceo,  121,  II,  a. 
experior,  123,  VII. 
expleo,  121,  I,  N. 
explico,  120,  II. 
exstinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
extimesco,  122,  IV,  2. 

F. 

facio,  122,  III. 
fallo,  122,  I,  2. 
fateor,  121,  VII. 
faveo,  121,  V. 
ferio,  123,  VI. 
fero,  129. 


The  references  are  to  sections. 

ferveo,  121,  VI. 
fig  ',  122,  I,  1,  b. 
findo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 
fingo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
fid,  131. 

flecto,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
fled,  121,  I. 
floreo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
fluo,  122,  II. 
fldresco,  122,  IV,  2. 
fodio,  122,  III. 
foveo,  121,  V. 
frango,  122,  I,  3. 
fremo,  122,  I,  5. 
fried,  120,  II. 
frigeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
fruor,  122,  V. 
fugio,  122,  III. 
fulcio,  123,  III. 
fulgeo,  121,  III. 
fulget,  138,  I. 
fundo,  122,  I,  3. 
fungor,  122,  V. 
furo,  122,  I,  7. 

G. 

gemo,  122,  I,  5. 
gero,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
gigno,  122,  I,  5. 
gradior,  122,  V. 

H. 

habeo,  121,  II,  a. 
haereo,  121,  III. 
haurio,  123,  III. 
horreo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 

I. 

ignosed,  122,  IV,  1. 
illicio,  122,  III. 
imbuo,  122,  II. 
immineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
impleo,  121,  I,  N. 
implied,  120,  II. 
incipio,  122,  III. 
incolo,  122,  I,  5. 
incumbo,  122,  I,  5. 
indulged,  121,  III. 
induo,  122,  II. 

Infero,  129. 


ingemlsco,  122,  IV,  2. 
Insum,  125. 
intellego,  122,  I,  3. 
interficio,  122,  III. 
intersum,  125. 
invado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
invenio,  123,  IV. 
Trascor,  122,  V. 

J. 

jaceo,  121,  II,  a. 
jacio,  122, III. 
jubeo,  121,  III. 
jungo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
juvo,  120,  III. 

L. 

labor,  122,  V. 
lacesso,  122,  I,  6. 
laedo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
lambo,  122,  I,  7. 
largior,  123,  VII. 
lateo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
lavo,  120,  III. 
lego,  122,  I,  3. 
libet,  138,  II. 
liceor,  121,  VII. 
licet,  138,  II. 
loquor,  122,  V. 
luceo,  121,  III. 
ludo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
lilgeo,  121,  III. 
luo,  122,  II. 

M. 

maereo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
malo,  130. 
maned,  121,  III. 
maturesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
medeor,  121,  VII. 
meminl,  133. 
mereo,  121,  II,  a. 
mereor,  121,  VII. 
mergo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
metior,  123,  VII. 
metuo,  122,  II. 
mico,  120,  II. 
minuo,  122,  II. 
misceo,  121,  II,  b. 


253 


of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


miseret,  138,  II. 
misereor,  121,  VII. 
mitto,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
mold,  122,  I,  5. 
moneo,  121,  II,  a. 
mordeo,  121,  IV. 
morior,  122,  V. 
moved,  121,  V. 

N. 

nanclscor,  122,  V. 
nascor,  122,  V.  * 
necto,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
neglego,  122,  I,  3. 
ningit,  138,  I. 
niteo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
nltor,  122,  V. 
noceo,  121,  II,  a. 
nolo,  130. 
nosed,  122,  IV,  1. 
nubo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 

O. 

obduresco,  122,  IV,  3. 
oblino,  122,  I,  6. 
oblivlscor,  122,  V. 
obmutesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
obruo,  122,  II. 
obsolesco,  122,  IV,  1. 
obsum,  125. 
obtineo,  121,  II,  b. 
ddl,  133. 
offero,  129. 
oleo,  121,  II,  a ,  N.  1. 
'perio,  123,  II. 
oportet,  138,  II. 
opperior,  123,  VII. 
ordior,  123,  VII. 
orior,  123,  VII. 

P. 

paenitet,  138,  II. 
palled,  121,  II,  a ,  N.  1. 
pando,  122,  I,  4. 
pared,  122,  I,  2. 
pared,  121,  II,  a. 
pario,  122,  III. 
pasco,  122,  IV,  1. 
pascor,  122,  IV,  1. 


The  references  are  to  sections. 

patefacid,  122,  III. 
patefio,  122,  III. 
pateo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
patior,  122,  V. 
paved,  121,  V. 
pellicio,  122,  III. 
pello,  122,  I,  2. 
pended,  121,  IV. 
pendo,  122,  I,  2. 
perago^  122,  I,  3. 
percello,  122,  I,  2,  N. 
percrebresco,  122,  IV,  3. 
perdo,  122,  I,  2. 
perficio,  122,  III. 
perfringo,  122,  I,  3. 
perfruor,  122,  V. 
perlego,  122,  1,3. 
permulceo,  121,  III. 
perpetior,  122,  V. 
pervado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
peto,  122,  I,  6. 
piget,  138,  II. 
pingo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
placed,  121,  II,  a. 
plaudo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
pluit,  138,  I. 
polled,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
polliceor,  121,  VII. 
polluo,  122,  II. 
pond,  122,  I,  6. 
posed,  122,  IV,  1. 
possido,  122,  I,  4. 
possum,  126. 
poto,  120,  I. 
praebeo,  121,  II,  a. 
praestat,  138,  III. 
praesum,  125. 
prandeo,  121,  VI. 
prehendo,  122,  I,  4. 
premo,  122,  I,  1  ,b. 
prodo,  122,  I,  2. 
promo,  122,  I,  3. 
prosum,  125. 
prosterno,  122,  I,  6. 
pudet,  138,  II. 
pungo,  122,  I,  2. 

Q- 

quaero,  122,  I,  6. 
quatio,  122,  III. 
queror,  122,  V. 
quiesco,  122,  IV,  1. 


R. 

rado,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
rapid,  122,  III. 
reddo,  122,  I,  2. 
redimo,  122,  I,  3. 
refercio,  123,  III. 
refero,  129. 
refert,  138,  II. 
rego,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
relinquo,  122,  I,  3. 
reminlscor,  122,  V. 
reor,  121,  VII. 
reperio,  123,  V. 
repo,  122,  1,  x,  a. 
resisto,  122,  I,  2. 
respuo,  122,  II. 
restinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
retineo,  121,  II,  b. 
rideo,  121,  III. 
rodo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
rubeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
rumpo,  122,  I,  3. 
ruo,  122,  II. 

S. 

saepio,  123, III. 
salio,  123,  II. 
sancio,  123,  III. 
sapid,  122, III. 
sarcio,  123, III. 
scindo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 
seised,  122,  IV,  2. 
scribo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
sculpo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
seed,  120, II. 
sedeo,  121,  V. 
sentio,  123,  III. 
sepelio,  123,  I. 
sequor,  122,  V. 
sero,  122,  I,  6. 
serpo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
sileo,  121,  II,  a ,  N. 
sino,  122,  I,  6. 
solvo,  122,  I,  4. 
sono,  120,  II. 
spargo,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
sperno,  122,  I,  6. 
splendeo,  121,  II,  a ,  N.  1. 
spondeo,  121,  IV. 
statuo,  122,  II. 
sterno,  122,  I,  6. 

-stinguo,  122,  I,  1,  a. 


254 


Index 

St5,  120,  IV. 
strepd,  122,  I,  5. 
strideo,  121,  VI. 
stringo,  122,  I,  1 ,  a. 
struo,  122,  II. 
studed,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
suaded,  121,  III. 
subigo,  122,  I,  3. 
subsum,  125. 
sum,  100. 
sumo,  122,  I,  3. 
suo,  122,  II. 
supersum,  125. 
sustined,  121,  II,  b. 

T. 

taceS,  121,  II,  a. 
taedet,  138,  II. 
tango,  122,  I,  2. 
tego,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
temno,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
tendo,  122,  I,  2. 
teneo,  121,  II,  b. 
tero,  122,  I,  6. 
terreo,  121,  II,  a. 


to  the  Most  Important  Verbs . 

The  references  are  to  sections. 


texd,  122,  I,  5. 
timed,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
tingS,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
tollS,  122,  1,2,  N. 
tonat,  138,  I. 
tondeS,  121,  IV. 
tonS,  120,  II. 
torpeS,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
torqueS,  121,  III. 
torreS,  121,  II,  b. 
tradS,  122,  I,  2. 
trahS,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
tremS,  122,  I,  5. 
tribuS,  122,  II. 
trudS,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
tueor,  121,  VII. 
tundS,  122,  I,  2. 

U. 

ulclscor,  122,  V. 
unguS,  122,  I,  1,  cl. 
urgeS,  1 2i,  III. 
urS,  122,  I,  1,  cl. 
utor,  122,  V. 


V. 

vadS,  122,  I,  1,  b. 
valeS,  121,  II,  a. 
vehS,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
vellS,  122,  I,  4. 
veniS,  123,  IV. 
vereor,  121,  VII. 
vergo,  122,  I,  7. 
verro,  122,  I,  4. 
vertS,  122,  I,  4. 
vescor,  122,  V. 
vetS,  120,  II. 
videS,  12X,  V. 
vigeS,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
vinciS,  123,  III. 
vincS,  122,  I,  3. 
vireS,  121,  II,  a,  N.  1. 
vIsS,  122,  I,  4. 
vIvS,  122,  I,  1,  a. 
void,  130. 
volvS,  122,  I,  4. 
vomS,  122,  I,  5. 
voveS, 121 ,  V. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Abbreviations.  —  Abl.,  ablative;  acc.,  accusative;  adj.,  adjective;  adv.,  adverb,  adver¬ 
bial,  or  adverbially ;  cf.,  compare;  comp.,  comparison  or  comparative;  conj.,  conjunction  or 
conjugation;  const.,  constr.,  construction;  dat.,  dative;  decl.,  declension;  gen.,  genitive; 
ind.,  indicative;  indir.  disc.,  indirect  discourse;  loc.,  locative;  N.,  note;  nom.,  nominative; 
plu.,  plural;  prep.,  preposition;  pron  ,  pronoun  or  pronunciation;  sing.,  singular;  subj., 
subject;  subjv.,  subjunctive;  voc.,  vocative;  w.,  with. 


A. 

a ,  vowel,  2,  i;  pronunciation,  3,  1;  de¬ 
velopment  of  a  before  a  single  conso¬ 
nant,  7,  1,  a\  before  two  consonants, 
7,  1,  b\  a  as  ending  of  nom.  sing,  of 
1st  decl.,  20;  in  voc.  sing,  of  Greek 
nouns  in  -es  of  xst  deck,  22;  in  nom. 
sing,  of  Greek  nouns  in  -e  of  1st  deck, 
22,  3;  termination  of  nom.  and  acc. 
plu.  of  neuters,  23;  35;  48;  termina¬ 
tion  of  nom.  sing,  of  nouns  of  3d  deck, 
28;  gender  of  nouns  in  -a  of  3d  deck, 
43,  3;  ending  of  acc.  sing,  of  Greek 
nouns  of  3d  deck, 47,  1 ;  regular  quan¬ 
tity  of  final  a ,  363,  1 ;  exceptions  to 
quantity  of  final  a ,  363,  1,  a-c. 
a,  pronunciation,  3,  1;  arising  by  con¬ 
traction,  7,  2;  as  ending  of  stem  in  1st 
deck,  18;  a-stems  inflected,  20 ;  in  voc. 
sing,  of  Greek  nouns  of  1st  deck,  22 ; 
in  voc.  sing,  of  Greek  nouns  in  -as  of 
3d  deck,  47,  4;  distinguishing  vowel 
of  1st  conjugation,  98 ;  ending  of  im¬ 
perative  act.  of  1st  conj.,  101 ;  final  a 
long  by  exception,  363,  1,  a-c. 
a,  ab,  abs,  use,  142,  1 ;  with  town  names, 
229,  2. 

a  to  denote  agency,  216. 

- to  denote  separation,  214. 

- place  from  which,  229. 

- with  town  names,  229,  2. 

- with  abl.  of  gerund,  338,  4,  b. 

-a- stems,  20 ;  98 ;  101. 


Abbreviations  of  proper  names,  373. 
Ablative  case,  17  ;  213  f. 

- in  -dbus,  21,  2,  e. 

- in  -d  in  prons.,  84,  3;  85,  3. 

- formation  of  sing,  of  adjs.  of  3d 

deck,  67,  a;  70,  1-5. 

- of  i-stems,  37  ;  38. 

- genuine  abl.  uses,  214  f. 

- absolute,  227. 

- of  agent,  216. 

- of  accompaniment,  222. 

- of  accordance,  220,  3. 

- of  association,  222,  A. 

- of  attendant  circumstance,  221 ;  227, 

2,  e). 

- of  cause,  219. 

- of  comparison,  217. 

- of  degree  of  difference,  223. 

- of  fine  or  penalty,  208,  2,  b. 

- of  manner,  220. 

- of  material,  224,  3. 

- of  means,  218. 

- of  penalty,  208,  2,  b. 

- of  place  where,  228. 

- of  place  whence,  229. 

- of  price,  225. 

- of  quality,  224. 

- of  separation,  214;  with  compounds 

of  dis-  and  se-,  214,  3. 

- of  source,  215. 

- of  specification,  226. 

- of  time  at  which,  230. 

- of  time  during  which,  231,  1. 

- of  time  within  which,  231. 


255 


256  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Ablative  case,  of  way  by  which,  213,  9. 

- with  contineri,  consistere ,  constdre , 

218,  4. 

- with  special  phrases,  218,  7. 

- with  jungere ,  miscere,  mutare,  etc. 

222,  A. 

- with  f acid,  fid,  218,  6. 

- with  prepositions,  142;  213  f. 

- with  verbs  of  filling,  218,  8. 

- with  verbs  and  adjs.  of  freeing,  214, 

1,  a,  and  N.  1. 

- with  adjs.  of  plenty,  218,  8. 

- with  utor,  fruor ,  fungor,  potior ,  ves- 

cor ,  218,  1. 

- with  opus  and  usus,  218,  2. 

- with  nitor ,  innixus,  and  fret  us,  218, 3. 

abs,  142,  1. 
absens,  125. 

Absolute,  ablative,  227. 

- time,  of  participles,  336,  4. 

- use  of  verbs,  174,  a. 

Abstract  nouns,  12,  2,  b) ;  plural  of,  55, 
4,  c). 

-dbus,  21,  2,  e) . 

ac,  341,  2,  b)  ;  =  as,  than ,  341,  I,  c). 
Acatalectic  verses,  366,  9. 
accedit  ut,  297,  2. 

Accent,  6;  in  gen.  of  nouns  in  -ius  and 
-ium,  25,  1  and  2. 
accidit  ut,  297,  2. 
accidit  quod,  299,  1,  A 
Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  222. 
Accordance,  abl.  of,  220,  3. 

Accusative  case,  17;  in  -an  and  -en,  of 
Greek  nouns,  22;  in  -om  in  2d  deck, 
24 ;  in  -on  and  -on  in  Greek  nouns,  27 ; 
in  -a  in  sing,  of  Greek  nouns,  47,  1 ; 
in  -as  in  plu.,  47,  3 ;  in  -ini  and  -is 
in  /-stems,  37 ;  38 ;  acc.  sing.  neut.  as 
adv.,  77,  3;  176,  31  17 2  f. 

- of  duration  of  time,  181. 

- of  result  produced,  173,  B;  176. 

- of  extent  of  space,  181. 

- of  limit  of  motion,  182  f. 

- of  neut.  prons.  or  adjs.,  176,  2. 

- of  person  or  thing  affected,  173,  A] 

I7S- 

- in  exclamations,  183. 

- as  subj.  of  inf.,  184. 

- with  admoneo,  commoned,  etc.,  207. 

- with  adv.  force,  176,  3. 

- with  compounds,  175,  2. 


— —  with  impersonal  verbs,  175,  2,  c. 

- with  intransitive  verbs,  175,  2,  a. 

- with  passive  used  as  middle,  175, 

2,  d). 

- with  verbs  of  remembering  and  for¬ 
getting  ( memirii ,  obllviscor ,  reminis- 
cor),  206,  1 ;  2. 

- with  verbs  expressing  emotion,  175, 

2,  b. 

- with  verbs  of  tasting  and  smelling, 

176,  5- 

- with  verbs  of  making,  choosing, 

calling,  regarding,  etc.,  177. 

- with  verbs  of  asking,  requesting, 

demanding,  teaching,  concealing,  178, 
i-5- 

- with  adjs.  {propior ,  proximus) ,  141, 

3- 

- with  adverbs  {prop ius,  pr oxime) , 

141,  3;  clam,  pridie,  144,  2. 

-  Genavam  ad  oppidum,  182,  2,  a. 

- cognate  acc.,  176,  4. 

- Greek  acc.,  180. 

- synecdochical  acc.,  180.. 

- two  accs.,  direct  obj.  and  pred.  acc., 

177 ;  person  affected  and  result  pro¬ 
duced,  178  ;  with  compounds  of  trdns, 
179;  with  other  compounds,  179,  2. 

- with  prepositions,  141 ;  179  f. 

- retained  in  pass.,  178,  2. 

Accusing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208  f. 
accuso,  constr.,  178,  1,  d). 
deer,  deck,  68  ;  compared,  71,  3. 
Acquitting,  verbs  of,  constj.,  208  f. 
ac  si,  with  subjv.,  307,  1. 
ad,  '  toward,’  *  in  vicinity  of,’  182,  3 ;  ad 
with  acc.  alternating  with  dat.,  358,  2. 

- compounds  of  ad  governing  dat., 

187,  III ;  188,  2,  d. 

- with  gerund  denoting  purpose,  338, 

3- 

-adds,  patronymic  ending,  148,  6,  a. 
adg-  =  agg-,  9,  2. 

Adjectives,  62  f . ;  354;  derivation  of, 
150  f. 

- of  1st  and  2d  deck,  63  ff. 

- in  -ius,  gen.  sing.,  63,  a. 

- of  3d  deck,  67  ft. ;  in  abl.,  70,  5. 

- comparison  of  adjs.,  71  f . ;  in  -er, 

71,  3;  in  -ilis,  71,  4;  comparative 
lacking,  73,  3 ;  defective  comparison, 
73 ;  not  admitting  comparison,  75 ; 


General  Index.  257 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


comparison  by  magis  and  maxinie , 
74- 

- numerals,  78  f. 

- syntax,  233  ff. ;  attributive  and  pred¬ 
icate  adjs.,  233,  2. 

- agreement,  234  f. 

- used  substantively,  236  f. 

- denoting  part  of  an  object,  241,  1. 

- with  force  of  adverbs,  239. 

- force  of  comp,  and  superb,  240,  1. 

- not  followed  by  infinitive,  333. 

- not  used  with  proper  names,  354,  3. 

- equivalent  to  a  poss.  gen.,  354,  4. 

- special  Latin  equivalents  of  Eng. 

adjs.,  354,  1. 

- equiv.  to  rel.  clause,  241,  2. 

- as  pred.  acc.,  177,  2. 

■ - position  of  adj.,  350,  4. 

- pronominal  adjs.,  92. 

- governing  gen.,  204. 

- governing  dat.,  192. 

- governing  acc.,  141,  3. 

- construed  with  abb,  214,  1,  d\  217, 

1;  218,8;  223;  226,2;  227,1. 

- with  supine  in  -u,  340,  2. 

adl-  —  all-,  9,  2. 
admoneo,  constr.,  207. 

Admonishing,  const,  of  verbs  of,  207. 
adr-  =  arr-,  9,  2. 
ads-  =  ass-,  9,  2. 

ad  se?isum,  constr.,  235,  5,  2,  c ;  254, 
4- 

adulescens,  spelling,  9,  2. 
adulter,  dec!.,  23,  2.. 
adultus,  force,  114,  2. 

Adverbs,  defined,  140;  formation  and 
comparison,  76  f. ;  140,  157. 

- in  -iter  from  adjs.  in  -us,  77,  4. 

- in  -tus  and  -tim,  77,  5. 

- in  0  and  -0,  77,  2. 

- numeral,  79. 

- as  preps.,  144,  2. 

- derivation  of,  157. 

- with  gen.,  201,  2;  3;  and  a. 

- special  meanings,  347. 

- position,  350,  6. 

Adversative  clause",  309. ' 

- conjunctions,  343. 

adversus,  prep,  with  acc.,  141. 
ae,  how  pronounced,  3,  2;  phonetic 
changes,  7,  1,  d. 
aedes,  plu.,  61. 


aequalis ,  abb  sing,  of,  70,  5 ,  a\  as  subst., 
238. 

aequor,  decb,  34. 

aequum  est  —  aequum  sit,  271,  1,  b). 
aes,  in  plu.,  55,  4,  b  ;  lacks  gen.  plu.,  57, 
7- 

aetas,  decb,  40,  1,  e)  ;  id  aetdtis,  185,  2. 
-aeus,  suffix,  152,  3. 
aevom,  decb,  24. 

Affected,  acc.  of  person  or  thing,  175. 
Agency,  dat.  of,  189;  abb,  216. 

Agent,  abb,  216;  with  names  of  animals, 
216,  2. 

ager,  decb,  23. 

Agreement,  nouns,  166 ;  168;  169,2;  3; 
4* 

- adjs.  234;  in  gender,  235,  B\  in 

number,  235,  A ;  prons.,  250 ;  verbs, 
with  one  subj.,  254,  1 ;  with  two  or 
more  subjs.,  255,  1. 

-at,  case-ending,  gen.  sing.,  1st  decb, 
poet.,  21,  2,  b). 
din,  135,  N. 

ajd,  135  ;  quantity  of  first  syllable,  362,  5. 
-al,  declension  of  nouns  in,  39. 
alacer,  decb,  68,  1 ;  comp.,  73,  4. 
aliqua,  91,  2. 
aliqui,  91;  91,2. 

aliquis,  91;  252,  2;  aliquis  dicat,  dixerit, 
280,  1. 

-alls,  suffix,  151,  2. 
aliter  ac,  341,  1,  c. 

alius,  66 ;  92,  1 ;  used  correlatively, 

253. 1. 

•  alius  ac,  *  other  than,’  341,  1,  c). 

Allia,  gender  of,  15,  3,  N. 
allicio,  conj.,  109,  2,  b) . 

Alliteration,  375,  3. 

Alphabet,  1. 

alter,  decb,  66 ;  92, 1 ;  used  correlatively, 
253.  i- 

Alternative  questions,  162,  4;  indirect, 
30°.  4- 

alteruter,  decb,  92,  2. 
alvus ,  gender  of,  26,  1,  b). 
amandus  sum,  conj.,  115. 
amaturus  sum,  conj.,  115. 
amb-  ( ambi -),  159,  3,  N. 
ambo,  80,  2,  a ;  usage,  355,  2. 
amo,  conj.,  101. 

amplius  =  amplius  quam,  217,  3. 
amussis,  -im,  38,  1. 


258  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


an ,  162,  4,  and  a)  ;  300,  4;  hand,  scio  an, 
nescid  an,  300,  5. 

Anacoluthon,  374,  6. 

Anapaest,  366,  2. 

Anaphora,  350,  11,  b). 

Anastrophe  of  prep.,  141,  2;  142,  3; 
144.  3- 

an  ceps  (syllaba  anceps ),  defined,  366, 
10. 

An  dr  oped  s,  decl.,  27. 
animal,  decl.,  39. 

Animals,  as  agents,  216,  2. 
animi,  locative,  232,  3. 
annon ,  in  double  questions,  162,  4. 
Answers,  162,  5. 

ante,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  as  adv.,  144,  1 ; 
dat.  w.  verbs  compounded  w.  ante, 
187,  III ;  in  expressions  of  time,  357, 
1 1  37i.  5  l  ante  diem,  371,  5  ;  6. 
Antecedent  of  rel.,  251. 

- attraction  of,  251,  4. 

- incorporated  with  rel.,  251,  4. 

Antecedent  omitted,  251,  1. 

- repeated  with  rel.,  251.  3. 

Antepenult,  6,  2. 
antepono ,  with  dat.,  187,  III,  2. 
antequam,  with  ind.,  291  :  with  subjv., 
292. 

Anticipation,  denoted  by  subjv.,  w. 
antequam  and  prnisquam ,  292  ;  by 
subjv.  with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  293, 
III,  2;  374,  5. 

-anus,  suffix,  151,  2  ;  152,  x;  3. 

Aorist  tense,  see  Historical  perfect. 
Apodosis,  301  ff. 

- in  conditional  sent,  of  1st  type,  302, 

4  ;  result  clauses  as  apodoses,  322 ;  quin- 
clauses  as  apodoses,  322  ;  ind.  ques¬ 
tions  as  apodoses,  322,  b;  potuerim  in 
apodosis,  322, c;  apodosis  in  indir.disc., 
319-321  ;  in  expressions  of  obligation, 
ability,  etc.,  304,  3,  a\  with  periphras¬ 
tic  conjugations,  304,  3,  b. 

Apposition,  169  ;  agreement,  169,  2  ; 
partitive,.  169,  5  ;  with  voc.  in  nom  , 
171,  2  ;  genitive  w.  force  of  appositive, 
202  ;  id  as  appositive  of  clause,  247, 
1,  b\  inf.  as  appositive,  326  ;  329; 
subst.  clauses  as  appositives,  282,  i, 
/;  294  ;  297,  3. 

Appositive  of  locative,  169,  4  ;  with  acc. 
of  limit  of  motion,  182,  2,  a  ;  with  town 


names,  in  abl.  of  place  whence,  229, 
2. 

- position  of,  350,  2. 

aptus,  w.  dat.,  192,  2. 
apud,  prep.  w.  acc.,  14 1. 

Archids,  declension  of,  22. 

-ar,  declension  of  nouns  in,  39. 
arguo,  constr.,  178,  1,  d). 

-aris,  suffix,  151,  2. 

-arium,  suffix,  148,  3. 

-drius,  suffix,  151,  2. 
armiger,  decl.,  23,  2. 

Arrangement  of  words,  348-350  ;  oi 
clauses,  351. 

Arsis,  defined,  366,  6. 

artus,^ dat.  and  abl.  plu.  of,  49,  3. 

arx,  decl.,  40. 

-as,  acc.  plu.  of  in  Greek  nouns,  47,  3. 

-as,  old  gen.  sing.,  1st  deck,  case-end¬ 
ing,  21,  2,  a). 

- ending  of  Greek  nouns,  nom. 

sing,  in,  22. 

- gender  of  nouns  in  -as,  43,  2 ;  45,  1. 

- voc.  of  Greek  nouns  in  -as,  antis ► 

47.  4- 

- at  is,  abl.  of  patrials  in,  70,  5,  c). 

Asking,  case  const,  with  verbs  of,  178,  1, 
c  ;  subst.  clauses  v\,  295,  1 ;  ind.  ques¬ 
tions,  300,  1. 

Aspirates,  2,  3,  c. 

Assimilation  of  consonants,  8,  4  f. ;  9,  2. 
Association,  abl.  of,  222,  A. 

Asyndeton,  341,  4,  a)  ;  346. 
at,  343,  1,  d). 

-atim,  suffix,  157,  2. 

Atlas,  decl.,  47,  4. 
atomus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  c ). 
atque,  341,  2,  b)  ;  as,  341,  1,  c). 
atqui,  343,  1,  e) . 

Attendant  circumstance,  abl.  of,  221 ; 
227,  2,  e). 

Attraction  of  demonstratives,  246,  5  ;  of 
relatives,  250,  5  ;  subjunctive  by  at¬ 
traction,  324  ;  of  adiectives,  327,  2,  a  ; 
328,  2. 

Attributive  adjs.,  233,  2. 

-dtus,  its  force  as  suffix,  151,  4. 
auddeter,  formation  and  comparison, 
76,  2. 

audeo,  conj.,  114,  1. 

audio,  conj.,  107;  with  pres,  partic. 
337.  3- 


General  Index.  259 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


auldi,  archaic  gen.,  21,  2,  b. 
ausus,  force  as  participle,  336,  5. 
aut,  342,  i,  a), 
autem ,  343,  I,  c)  ;  350,  8. 

Auxiliary  omitted  in  infin.,  116,  5;  in 
finite  forms,  166,  3. 
auxilium,  auxilia ,  61. 

-dx,  suffix,  150,  2. 

B. 

balneum ,  balneae ,  60,  2.  . 
barbitos,  decl.,  27. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 
belli,  locative,  232,  2. 
be llum,  decl.,  23. 
bene,  comparison,  77,  1. 

Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
benevolus,  comparison,  71,  5,  a). 

-ber,  declension  of  month  names  in,  68,  1. 
-bills,  suffix,  150,  4. 
bonus,  decl.,  63  ;  comparison,  72. 
bos,  decl.,  41. 

Brachylogv,  374,  2. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  368,  3,  d. 

-bulum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

- bundus ,  suffix,  150,  1. 
bur  is,  decl.,  38,  1. 

C. 

C.,  for  G.  as  abbreviation  of  Gains,  373. 
caedes,  decl.,  40. 

Caesura,  366,  8 ;  in  dactylic  hexameter, 
368,  3. 

calcar,  decl.,  39. 

Calendar,  371  ;  372. 

Calends,  371,  2,  a) . 
campester,  decl.,  68,  1. 
canis,  decl.,  38,  2. 
cap  id,  conj.,  110. 
carbasus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  b) . 
career,  car  ceres,  61. 

Cardinals,  defined,  78,  1  ;  list  of,  79  ; 
decl.,  80;  with  and  without  et,  81,  1  ; 
3;  expressed  by  subtraction,  81,  2  ; 
replaced  by  distributives  in  poetry,  81, 
_4.  d. 

care,  comparison,  76,  2. 
card,  decl.,  42. 
carrus,  carrum,  6o,  1. 

Cases,  17  ;  alike  in  form,  19  ;  170  ff. 
Case-endings,  17,  3. 
ca.truyn ,  castra,  61. 


Catalectic  verses,  366,  9. 
causa,  with  gen.,  198,  1  ;  nulla  causa  est 
cur,  with  subjv.,  295,  7. 

Causal  clauses,  285 ;  286  ;  clause  of 
characteristic  with  accessory  notion  of 
cause,  283,  3. 

- conjunctions,  345. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  219;  227,  2,  d). 
cave,  363,  2,  b) . 

cave,  cave  ne  in  prohibitions,  276,  b. 

-ce,  6,  3  f. ;  87,  footnote  2. 
cedo,  cette,  137,  3. 
cedo,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 
celeber,  decl.,  68,  1. 
celer,  decl.,  68,  2. 
celo,  constr.,  178,  1,  e). 
cendtus,  force,  114,  2. 
cetera,  adverbial  acc.,  185,  2. 
ceteri,  use,  253,  4. 

Characteristic,  clauses  of,  283  ;  denoting 
cause  or  opposition  (  ‘  although  ’)>  283, 
3  ;  gen.  of,  203,  1  ;  abl.,  224. 

Charge,  gen.  of,  208,  1 ;  2. 

Chiasmus,  350,  11,  c). 

Choosing,  const,  w.  verbs  of,  177,  1-3. 
circa,  circiter ,  circum,  preps,  w.  acc., 
141. 

circum,  compounds  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 
circumdo,  const.,  187,  1 ,  a. 

Circumstance,  abl.  of  attendant,  221. 

cis,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

citerior,  comparison,  73,  1. 

cito,  77,  2,  a . 

citra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  14 1. 

civitds,  decl.,  40,  i,  e. 

clam,  with  acc.,  144,  2. 

Clauses,  coord,  and  subord.,  164,  165. 
Clauses  of  characteristic,  283 ;  purpose, 
282 ;  result,  284 ;  causal,  285 ;  tem¬ 
poral  with  postquam,  ut,  ubi,  simul  ac, 
etc.,  287;  with  cum,  288;  substantive 
clauses,  294  f. ;  condition,  301  f. ;  con¬ 
ditional  comparison,  307 ;  concessive, 
308  ;  adversative,  309  ;  wish  or  proviso, 
310;  relative,  31 1  f. ;  283  f. 
clavis,  deck,  38,  1. 

Clinging,  construction  of  verbs  of,  358,  3. 
clipeus,  clipeum ,  60,  1. 

Close  of  sentences,  cadences  used,  350, 
12. 

coepi,  conj.,  133;  coeptus  est,  133,  1. 
Cognate  acc.,  176,  4. 


260  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


cognomen ,  373. 

cogd,  w.  acc.,  178,  1,  d)  ;  w.  infin., 
331,  VI. 

Collective  nouns,  12,  2,  a) ;  w.  plu. 
verb,  254,  4. 

coins ,  gender  of,  26,  1,  b) . 
com-,  compounds  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 
comedo ,  conj.,  128,  2. 
comet es,  decl.,  22. 

comitia,  as  time  expression,  230,  1. 
Commanding,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  187,  II ; 
subst.  clause  w.  verbs  of,  295,  1 ; 
commands  expressed  by  jussive  subjv., 
275  ;  by  imperative,  281. 

Common  gender,  15,  B,  N.  1. 

- nouns,  12,  1. 

- syllables,  5,  B ,  3. 

common ef acid,  w.  gen.  and  acc.,  207. 
commoned,  w.  gen.  and  acc.,  207. 
communis,  w.  gen.,  204,  2;  with  dat., 
204,  2,  a. 

co?}imuto,  w.  abl.,  222,  A. 

Comparatives,  decl.,  69;  w.  abl.,  217; 
w.  qua?n,  217,  2 ;  occasional  meaning, 
240. 

- ,  two  required  in  Latin,  240,  4. 

Comparison  of  adjs.,  71  f. ;  of  adverbs, 
76;  77* 

- - participles  as  adjs.,  71,  2. 

- adjs.  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  -volus,  71,  5. 

- defective,  73. 

- abl.  of,  217. 

Comparison,  conditional,  307. 
Compendiary  comparison,  374,  2,  b)  ; 
w.  result  clauses,  284,  4;  w.  clauses  of 
characteristic,  283,  2,  a. 

Completed  action,  tenses  expressing, 
262-4 !  267.  3- 

Compounds,  158  f. ;  spelling  of,  9,  2. 
Compound  sentences,  164. 

- verbs  governing  acc.,  175,  2,  a ;  gov¬ 
erning  dat.,  187,  III;  188,  2,  d. 
Conative  uses  of  pres.,  259,  2 ;  of  imperf., 
260,  3;  of  pres,  partic.,  336,  2,  a. 
Concessive  clauses,  308;  ‘although’  as 
accessory  idea  to  clause  of  character¬ 
istic,  283,  3. 

- subjunctive,  278. 

Conclusion,  see  Apodosis. 

Concrete  nouns,  12,  2,  a). 

Condemning,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208  f. 
Conditional  clauses  of  comparison,  307. 


- sentences,  1st  type  (nothing  im¬ 
plied),  302;  in  indir.  disc.,  319;  2d 
type  (‘  should  would  ’) ,  303 ;  in  indir. 
disc.,  320;  3d  type  (contrary  to  fact), 
304;  in  indir.  disc.,  321;  abl.  abs. 
equivalent  to,  227,  2,  b)  ;  introduced 
by  relative  pronouns,  312;  general 
conditions,  302,  2:3;  indicative  in  con- 
trary-to-fact  apodoses,  304,  3  ;  protasis 
omitted  or  implied,  305,  1 ;  protasis 
contained  in  imperative,  or  jussive 
subjv.,  305,  2;  employment  of  nisi,  si 
non,  sin ,  si  minus,  306;  conditional 
relative  sentences,  312,  2. 
confidd,  w.  abl.,  219,  1,  a. 

Conjugation,  n ;  93  f. ;  the  four  conju¬ 
gations,  98;  periphrastic,  115;  pecul¬ 
iarities  of  conj.,  116. 

Conjunctions,  145,  1 ;  341  f. 
conor,  with  inf.,  295,  5,  a. 

Consecutive  clauses,  see  Result  clauses. 
consistere ,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 

Consonant  stems,  nouns,  29  f. ;  adjs., 
70,  1. 

- partially  adapted  to  2-stems,  40. 

Consonants,  2,  2  f.  ;  pronunciation,  3,  3. 
- ,  double,  2,  9. 

- combinations  of,  in  division  into 

syllables,  4,  2  f. 

Consonant  changes,  8 ;  omission  of  fi¬ 
nals,  8,  3;  assimilation  of,  8,  4  f. 

-  stems,  29;  following  analogy  of 

*-stems,  40. 

cdnspicio,  conj.,  109,  2,  B). 
constdre,  w.  abl.,  218,  4. 

Construction  acc.  to  sense,  254,  4;  235, 
B,  2,  c). 

consuetudd  est,  with  subjv.  substantive 
clause,  297,  3. 
consuevi  =  pres.,  262,  A. 
consularis,  abl.  sing,  of,  70,  5,  a. 
Contending,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  358,  3. 
contentus ,  w.  abl.,  219,  1. 
continent,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 
contingit  ut,  297,  2. 

Continued  action,  tenses  for,  257,  1,  b. 
contra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  as  adv.,  144, 1. 
Contraction,  7,  2. 

- ,  length  of  vowel  as  result  of,  5,  A, 

1,  b). 

Contrary-to-fact  conditions,  304. 
Convicting,  verbs  of,  constr. ,  208  f. 


General  Index .  ^  261 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Coordinate  clauses,  165. 

- conjunctions,  341  f. 

copia,  copiae,  61. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  341. 
cor,  lacks  gen.  plu.,  57,  7. 
cornu,  deck,  48. 

Correlative  conjunctions,  341,3;  342,2. 

- adverbs,  140. 

cottidie,  spelling,  9,  2. 

Countries,  gender  of,  26,  I,  a. 

Crime,  gen.  of,  208,  1 ;  2. 

-crum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

-culum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

-cuius  (a,  uiri),  suffix,  148,  1. 
cum,  appended,  142,  4. 
cum  (conj.),  ‘when,’  288-290;  ‘when¬ 
ever,’  288,  3. 

- adversative,  309,  3. 

- causal,  286,  2. 

- explicative,  290. 

- - to  denote  a  recurring  action,  288,  3  ; 

289,  a. 

- ‘when  suddenly,’  288,  2. 

cum  .  .  .  turn,  290,  2. 
cum  primum,  287,  1. 
cum,  spelling  of,  9,  1. 
cum  (prep.),  with  abl.  of  manner,  220; 
with  abl.  of  accompaniment,  222 ;  ap¬ 
pended  to  prons.,  142,  4. 

-cundus,  suffix,  150,  1. 
cup  id,  conj.,  109,  2,  a )  ;  with  subst. 
clause  developed  from  optative,  296; 
w.  inf.,  331,  IV,  and  a. 
cur,  nulla  causa  esi  cur,  w.  subjv.,  295,  7. 
curd,  with  gerundive  const,  as  obj.,  337, 
8,  b,  2. 

Customary  action,  259,  1 ;  260,  2. 

D. 

D,  changed  to  s,  8,  2;  d  final  omitted,  8, 
3  ;  assimilated,  8,  4. 

Dactyl,  366,  2. 

Dactylic  hexameter,  368. 

- pentameter,  369. 

dapis,  defective,  57,  6. 

Daring,  verbs  of,  with  obj.  inf.,  328,  1. 
Dates,  371,  2-5;  as  indeclinable  nouns, 
371,  6;  in  leap  year,  371,  7. 

Dative,  17;  irregular,  1st  deck,  21,  2,  c)  ; 
3d  deck,  47,  5;  4th  deck,  49,  2;  3;  5th 
deck,  52,  1  and  3;  186  ff. 

- in  the  gerundive  const.,  339,  7. 


- of  agency,  189. 

- of  direction  and  limit  of  motion,  193. 

- of  indir.  obj.,  187. 

- of  advantage  or  disadvantage,  so 

called,  188,  1. 

- of  local  standpoint,  188,  2,  a). 

- of  person  judging,  188,  2,  c). 

- of  possession,  190;  359,  1. 

- of  purpose  or  tendency,  191 ;  339,  7. 

- of  reference,  188. 

-  of  separation,  188,  2,  d). 

- of  the  gerund,  338,  2. 

- with  adjs.,  192;  with  proprius,  com¬ 
munis,  204,  2;  similis,  204,  3. 

- with  compound  verbs,  187,  III. 

- with  intrans.  verbs,  187,  II. 

- with  nomen  est,  190,  1. 

- with  impersonal  pass,  verbs,  187, 

II,  b. 

- with  trans.  verbs,  187,  I. 

- with  verbs  of  mingling,  358,  3. 

- ethical  dat.,  188,  2,  b). 

de,  prep.  w.  abh,  142;  with  abl.  instead 
of  gen.  of  whole',  201,  1,  a\  with  verbs 
of  reminding,  207,  a;  compounds  of 
de  governing  dat.,  188,  2,  d\  de  vi,  with 
verbs  of  accusing  and  convicting,  208, 
3;  with  gerund  and  gerundive,  338, 
4,  b.  _ 

dea,  deabus,  21,  2,  e). 
debebam,  debut  in  apodosis,  304,  3,  a), 
debed,  governing  obj.  inf.,  328,  1. 
debut,  with  pres,  inf.,  270,  2. 
decemvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 
decerno,  w.  subst.  clause  developed  from 
volitive,  295,  4. 
decet,  w.  acc.,  175,  2,  c). 

Declarative  sentences,  defined,  161,  1 ; 

in  indir.  disc.,  314. 

Declension,  11;  heteroclites,  59. 

- ,  stems  and  gen.  terminations,  18. 

- ,  1st  deck,  20-22;  2d  deck,  23-27; 

3d  deck,  28-47;  4th  deck,  48-50;  5th 
deck,  51-53;  of  Greek  nouns,  22;  27; 
47;  of  adjs.,  62-69;  of  prons.,  84-90. 
Decreeing,  verbs  of,  w.  subjv.,  295,  4. 
dedecet,  175,  2,  c). 

Defective  verbs,  133  f. ;  nouns,  54  f. ;  52, 
4;  57;  comparison,  73. 

Definite  perfect,  see  Present  perfect. 
Degree  of  difference,  abl.  of,  223. 
Degrees  of  comparison,  71  ff. 


262 


General  Inelex. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


delectat ,  w.  inf.  as  subj.,  327,  1. 
delector ,  w.  abl.  of  cause,  219. 
Deliberative  subjv.,  277 ;  in  indir.  ques¬ 
tions,  300,  2;  in  indir.  disc.,  315,  3. 
Demanding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  178, 
1  ;  w.  subst.  clause,  295,  1. 
Demonstrative  pronouns,  87;  246;  of 
1st,  2d,  and  3d  persons,  87 ;  position  of 
demonstratives,  350,  5,  a. 
Denominative  verbs,  156. 

Dental  mutes,  2,  4. 

- stems,  33. 

Dependent  clauses,  282  ff. 

Deponent  verbs,  112;  forms  with  passive 
meanings,  112,  b )  ;  semi-deponents, 
114. 

Depriving,  verbs  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  1 ,  b. 
Derivatives,  147  f. 

-des,  patronymics  in,  148,  6. 

Description,  imperf.  as  tense  of,  260, 

1,  a. 

Desideratives,  155,  3. 

Desire,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  1 ;  verbs 
of,  w.  subst.  clauses,  296,  1. 
deter  ior ,  73,  1. 
deus ,  decl.,  25,  4. 
devertor,  114,  3. 
dexter,  decl.,  65,  1. 

di-,  159,  3.  N- 

Diaeresis,  366,  8 ;  bucolic  d.,  368,  3,  d). 
Diastole,  367,  2. 
die,  116,  3. 

dlcitur,  dictum  est,  w.  inf.,  332,  note. 
died,  accent  of  compounds  of,  in  impera¬ 
tive,  116,  3. 

-dicus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 

Dido,  decl.,  47,  8. 

dies,  decl.,  51 ;  gender,  53. 

Difference,  abl.  of  degree  of,  223. 
difficile  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  1,  b ). 
difficilis,  comp.,  71,  4. 
dignor,  with  abl.,  226,  2. 
dignus,  226,  2 ;  in  rel.  clauses  of  purpose, 
282,  3. 

Dimeter  verses,  366,  11. 

Diminutives,  148,  1. 

Diphthongs,  2, 1 ;  3,  2;  diphthong  stems, 
41 ;  diphthongs  shortened,  362,  2. 
diphthongus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  c). 
Dipodies,  366,  11. 

Direct  reflexives,  244,  1. 

- object,  172. 


- quotation,  313. 

- discourse,  313. 

- questions,  162. 

dis-,  in  compounds,  159,  3,  N. 

Disjunctive  conjunctions,  342. 
dissimilis,  comp.,  71,  4. 

Distributives,  63,  2;  78,  1;  79;  81, 

4- 

din,  compared,  77,  1. 

dives,  decl.,  70,  1 ;  compared,  71,  6. 

dixti,  1 16,  4,  c. 

do,  conj.,  127. 

doceo,  with  acc.,  178,  1,  b) ;  with  inf., 
33b  VI. 

dotni,  locative,  232,  2. 
do  mb,  229,  1,  b). 
do  mbs,  182,  1,  b. 

domum,  182,  1  ),b\  ‘house,’  in  acc.,  182, 

N. 

domus ,  decl.,  49,  4;  gender,  50. 
donee,  with  ind.,  293;  with  subjv.,  293, 
III,  2. 

dbno,  constr.,  187,  x,  a. 
dos,  gender,  44,  3. 

Double  consonants,  2,  9. 

- questions,  162,  4;  indirect,  300,  4. 

Doubting,  verbs  of,  w.  quin,  298. 
Dubitative  subjunctive,  see  Deliberative. 
dubito,  dubium  est,  non  dubito,  non  dubium 
est,  with  quin,  298 ;  non  dubito  w.  inf., 
298,  a. 
due,  1 16,  3. 

duco,  accent  of  compounds  of,  in  imper., 
116,  3. 

duim,  duint,  127,  2. 

-dum,  6,  3. 

dum,  temporal  with  ind.,  293 ;  with 
subjv.,  293,  III,  2;  in  wishes  and 
provisos,  3x0. 
dummodo,  310. 
duo,  decl.,  80,  2. 

Duration  of  time,  181,  2. 

Duty,  expressed  by  gerundive,  189; 
33 7,  8 ;  verbs  of  duty  in  conclusion 
of  cond.  sentences  contrary-to-fact, 
304,  3,  a\  subst.  clauses  dependent 
on  verbs  of,  295,  6 ;  inf.  w.  verbs  of 
duty,  327,  1;  328,  1;  330;  ‘it  is  the 
duty  of,’  198,  3;  ‘I  perform  a  duty,’ 
218,  1. 

duumvir,  gen.  piu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 
dux,  decl.,  32. 


General  Index.  263 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


E. 

e,  as  vowel,  2,  i ;  as  second  member  of 
diphthongs,  2,  1 ;  sound  of,  3,  1 ; 
change  to  i,  7,  1,  a\  for  a,  7,  1,  c ;  in 
voc.  sing,  of  2d  decl.,  23;  in  abl. 
sing,  of  3d  decl.,  31 ;  dropped  in  nom. 
of  neuters  of  3d  decl.,  39;  -e  for  -i  in 
abl.  of  mare ,  39;  alternating  w.  I 
in  abl.  sing,  of  i-stems,  37,  38  ;  for  e  in 
gen.  sing,  of  5th  decl. ,  52,  1;  in  abl. 
sing,  of  adjs.  of  3d  decl.,  70,  1;  3;  in 
bene  and  male,  77,  1 ;  distinguishing 
vowel  of  3d  conj.,  98;  before  j,  362, 
5 ;  for  -e  in  imperatives,  363,  2,  b ;  in 
tetnere  and  saepe ,  363,  2,  c. 
e,  pronunciation,  3,  1;  by  contraction,  7, 
2;  as  ending  of  Greek  nouns,  22; 
^-sterns,  51 ;  ending  of  dat.  of  5th  deck, 
52,  3;  distinguishing  vowel  of  2d 
conj.,  98;  -e  in  fame,  363,  2,  a\  in 
adverbs,  363,  2,  c. 
e,  ex,  use,  142,  2 ;  see  ex. 
ecquis ,  91,  6. 
edic,  1 16,  3. 

Editorial  ‘  we,’  242,  3. 
edo,  128. 
educ,  116,  3. 
efficid  ut,  297,  1. 
ejpcitur  ut,  297,  2. 

Effort,  subjv.  w.  verbs  of,  295,  5. 

*egeo,  w.  abl.,  214,  1,  c. 
ego ,  84. 
egomet,  84,  2. 
ei,  diphthong,  2,  1 ;  3,  2. 

-el,  gen.  of  5th  deck,  52,  I. 

-eis,  148,  6,  b). 
ejus,  as  poss.,  86,  x. 

Elegiac  distich,  369,  2. 

Elision,  366,  7. 

Ellipsis,  374,  1. 

-ellus  [a,  uni),  148,  1. 

Emphasis,  349. 

Enclitics,  accent  of  preceding  syllable, 

6,  3- 

- ,  -met,  84,  2;  -pte,  86,  3;  cum  as  en¬ 
clitic,  142,  4. 

End  of  motion,  see  Limit. 

Endings,  case  endings,  17,  3;  personal, 
of  verb,  96 ;  in  formation  of  words,  147  f. 
enim,  345. 

-ensimus  (-ensumus) ,  79,  N. 

-ensis,  15 1,  2;  152,3. 


Envy,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 
eo,  132;  cpds.,  132,  1. 

Epexegetical  genitive,  202. 

Epistolary  tenses,  265. 
epistula,  spelling,  9,  2. 
epitome,  deck,  22. 
epulum,  epulae,  60,  2. 
equabus,  21,  2,  e) . 
equester,  deck,  68,  1. 
equos,  deck,  24. 

-er,  deck,  of  nouns  in,  23;  adjs.,  63;  64; 

65 ;  68 ;  adjs.  in  -er  compared,  71,  3. 
ergd,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 
ergo,  344,  i,3). 

-emus,  suffix,  154. 

-es,  gender  of  nouns  in,  43,  x  ;  exception, 
44,  5;  in  nom.  plu.  of  Greek  nouns  of 
3d  deck,  47,  2. 

-es,  ending  of  Greek  nouns,  nom.  sing, 
in,  22. 

- ,  gen.  -is,  deck  of  nouns  in,  40,  1,  <2). 

esse,  conjugation  of,  100;  compounds  of, 
125;  126;  esse  omitted,  116,  5. 
est  qui,  with  subj.,  283,  2. 
et,  341,  1,  a ;  in  enumerations,  341,  4,  c) . 
et  is,  247,  4. 
et  .  .  .  neque,  341,  3. 

Ethical  dative,  188,  2,  b). 
etiam,  in  answers,  162,  5. 
et  non,  341,  2,  c) . 

etsl,  ‘  although,’  309,  2 ;  etsi ,  ‘  even  if,’ 
3°9>  2.  «• 

-etum,  suffix,  148,  3. 

-eus,  inflection  of  Greek  nouns  in,  47, 6 ; 

adj.  suffix,  151,  1. 
even  it  ut,  297,  2. 

ex,  142,  2;  with  abl.,  instead  of  gen.  of 
whole,  201,  1,  a;  compounds  of,  with 
dat.,  188,  2,  d\  with  abl.  of  source, 
215,  1. 

Exchanging,  verbs  of,  with  abl.  of  asso¬ 
ciation,  222,  A. 

Exclamation,  acc.  of,  183. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  161,  3. 
Expectancy,  clauses  denoting,  in  subjv., 
292,  1 ;  293,  III,  2, 
exposed,  constr.,  178,  1,  a), 
exsisto,  spelling,  9,  2. 
exspecto,  spelling,  9,  2. 
exteri,  exterior,  73,  2. 
extreinus,  use,  241,  1. 
exuo,  w.  abh,  214, 1,  b. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


tres,  decl.,  80,  3. 
Tribrach,  370,  2. 


tribus,  decl.,  49,  3 ;  gender,  50. 
Trimeter  verses,  366,  n. 
trim,  use,  81,  4,  b). 
triumvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 

-trlx,  suffix,  147,  x. 

Trochee,  366,  2. 

-trum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

Trusting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
tu,  decl.,  84. 

-tudo,  suffix,  149. 

tul,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 

-tura,  suffix,  147,  3,  d). 
tus,  decl.,  57,  7. 

-tm,  suffix,  147,  3  ;  151,  4. 

tussis,  decl.,  38. 

tute,  tiitemet,  tutimet,  84,  2. 

Two  accusatives,  177;  178. 

Two  datives,  191,  2. 

U. 

u,  instead  of  i  in  some  words,  9,  1 ;  in¬ 
stead  of  a,  9,  1 ;  9,  4. 
u,  becomes  v,  367,  4. 

«-stems,  48. 
a-stems,  41. 

-ii,  dat.  sing.,  4th  decl.,  49,  2. 
uber,  dec!.,  70,  1. 

ubi,  with  ind.,  287,  1;  2;  with  gen.,  201, 
3- 

-ubus,  dat.,  plu.,  4th  decl.,  49,  3. 
ullus,  decl.,  66. 
ultei'ior,  compared,  73,  1. 
ultimus,  use,  241,  2. 
ultra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

-ulus,  diminutive  ending,  150,  2;  ( a , 
um),  148,  1. 

-um,  1st  decl.,  gen.  plu.  in,  21,  2,  d)  ;  2d 
decl.,  25,  6 ;  for  -ium,  70,  7. 

• undus ,  -undi,  in  gerund  and  gerundive 
1 16,  2. 

unus,  dec!.,  66;  92,  1 ;  unus  est  qui,  with 
subjv.,  283,  2. 

-urib,  ending  of  desiderative  verbs,  155, 
3* 

-urus,  ending  of  fut.  act.  partic.,  101 ; 
io3  ff-  i  -virus  fuisse  in  apodosis  of 
conditional  sentences  contrary-to-fact, 
in  indir.  disc.,  321,  2;  -urus  fuerim  in 
indir.  questions  serving  as  apodoses, 
322,  b. 


-us,  neuter  nouns  of  2d  decl.  in,  26,  2; 
nom.  in  3d  decl.,  in  -us,  36 ;  gender  of 
nouns  in  -us  of  3d  decl.,  43,  3;  excep¬ 
tions  in  gender,  46,  4. 

-us,  nouns  of  3d  decl.  in,  43,  2. 
usque  ad,  w.  acc.,  141,  1. 
usus  est,  with  abl.,  218,  2. 
ut,  temporal,  287,  1 ;  2 ;  ut,  uti,  in  pur¬ 
pose  clauses,  282;  in  result  clauses, 
284;  in  substantive  clauses,  295  f. ; 
substantive  clauses  without,  295,  8; 
with  verbs  of  fearing,  296,  2. 
ut  vie,  =  ne,  282,  1,  b\  295,  1,  4,  5. 
ut  non  instead  of  ne,  282,  1  ,c;  in  clauses 
of  result,  284,  297. 

ut  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  character¬ 
istic,  283,  3. 
ut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  1. 
uter,  decl.,  66;  92,  1. 
uter,  decl.,  40,  i,d). 
utercumque,  decl.,  92,  2. 
uterlibet,  decl.,  92,  2. 
uterque,  decl.,  92,  2;  use,  355,  2. 
utervls,  dec!.,  92,  2. 

utilius  est,  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  1,  b). 
utinam,  with  optative  subjv.,  279,  1  and  2. 
utor,  with  abl.,  218,  1 ;  in  gerundive 
constr.,  339,  4. 

utpote  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  char¬ 
acteristic,  283,  3. 
utraque,  6,  5. 

utrum  ...  an,  162,  4 ;  300,  4. 

V. 

v>  1*  1 1  pron.,  3,  3 ;  developing  from  u, 
367.  4- 

v,  becomes  u,  367,  5. 

valde,  by  syncope,  for  valid?,  7,  4. 

vale,  363,  2,  b). 

Value,  indefinite,  in  gen.,  203,  3. 
vannus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  b). 

Variations  in  spelling,  9. 
vbs,  decl.,  59,  1. 

-ve<  6-  3;  342,  1,  b). 
vel,  342,  1,  b)  ;  with  superb,  240,  3. 
velim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 
vellem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 
velut,  velut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  1. 
venter,  decl.,  40,  I,  d). 

Verba  sentiendi  et  decldrandl,  w.  inf.  of 
indir.  disc.,  331,  I ;  passive  use  of 
these,  332. 


General  Index. 


279 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Verbal  adjs.,  150,  1-4. 

Verbs,  94  f. ;  personal  endings,  96 ;  de¬ 
ponent,  112;  archaic  and  poetic  forms, 

*  1 16,  4;  irregular,  124;  defective,  133; 

impersonal,  138  ;  with  substantive 
clauses  of  result,  297,  2;  omission  of, 
166,  3;  transitive,  174;  used  abso¬ 
lutely,  174,  a\  passives  used  as  mid¬ 
dles,  175,  2,  d)  ;  of  smelling  and 
tasting,  constr.,  176,  5 ;  not  used  in 
passive,  177,  3,  a\  intransitives  im¬ 
personal  in  passive,  187,  II,  b\  256,  3; 
compounded  with  preps.,  constr.,  187, 
III;  of  judicial  action,  constr.,  208; 
derivation  of,  155  f. ;  inceptive  or 
inchoative,  155,  1 ;  frequentative  or 
intensive,  155,  2;  desiderative,  153,  3; 
denominative,  156;  agreement  of, 
254  f. 

Verb  stems,  97;  formation  of,  117  f. 
vereor,  conj.,  113;  with  subst.  clause  in 
subjv.,  296,  2. 

Vergilius ,  gen.  of,  25,  1. 
veritus ,  with  present  force,  336,  5. 
verb,  343,  1,  g)  ;  in  answers,  162,  5. 
Verse,  366,  3. 

Verse-structure,  366  f. 

Versification,  361. 

versus,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141;  follows  its 
case,  141,  2. 
verum,  343,  1,  b). 
vescor ,  with  abl.,  218,  1. 
vesper ,  decl.,  23,  2. 
ves perl,  locative,  232,  2. 
vestrl ,  as  obj.  gen.,  242,  2. 
vestru7?i,  as  gen.  of  whole,  242,  2;  as 
possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
veto ,  with  inf.,  331,  II. 
vetus,  decl.,  70;  compared,  73,  3. 
vi,  220,  2. 

vicem,  used  adverbially,  185,  1;  vicis, 
vice,  57,  s,  b. 
victor ,  decl.,  34. 
viden,  accent,  6,  4. 
video ,  with  pres,  partic.,  33 7,  3. 
vigil,  decl.,  34. 
violenter,  formation,  77,  4,  a. 
vir,  decl.,  23. 

- ,  gen.  plu.  of  nouns  compounded 

with,  25,  6,  b). 
virile  secus ,  constr.,  185,  1. 
virus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 


vis,  decl.,  41. 

viscera,  used  in  plu.  only,  56,  3. 

Vocative  case,  17;  19,  1;  of  Greek 
proper  names  in  -as,  47,  4 ;  of  adjs.  in 
-ius,  63,  1;  171;  in  -i  for  ~ie,  25,  1; 
position  of,  350,  3. 

Voiced  sounds,  2,  3,  a. 

Voiced  consonants,  2,  3,  b) . 

Voiceless  consonants,  2,  3,  a. 

Voices,  94;  256;  middle  voice,  256,  1. 
Volitive  subjunctive,  272  f. 
volnus,  spelling,  9,  1. 

void,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a;  270, 
2,  a\  with  subjv.,  296,  x,  a. 
volt,  spelling,  9,  1. 
voltus,  spelling,  9,  1. 
volucer,  decl.,  68,  1. 
voluntate,  220,  2. 

- volus ,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71, 
5- 

Vowels,  2,  1 ;  sounds  of  the,  3,  1 ;  quan¬ 
tity  of,  5,  A;  contraction  of,  7,  2;  para¬ 
sitic,  7,  3. 

Vowel  changes,  7. 
vulgus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 

-vum,  -vus,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  24. 

W. 

Want,  verbs  and  adjs.  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  I, 
'  c\  d. 

Way  by  which,  abl.  of,  218,  9. 

We,  editorial,  242,  3. 

Whole,  gen.  of,  201. 

Wills,  use  of  fut.  imperative  in,  281, 
1,  b. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  1. 

Wish,  clauses  with  dum,  etc.,  expressing 
a,  310. 

Wishes,  subjunctive  in,  279;  see  Opta¬ 
tive  subjunctive. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  with  subst.  clause, 
296,  1 ;  with  obj.  inf.,  331,  IV. 
Word-formation,  146  f. 

Word-order,  348  f. 

Word  questions,  162,  1.  * 

X. 

x,2,9\  =  cs  and  gs,  32. 

-x,  decl.  of  monosyllables  in,  preceded  by 
one  or  more  cons.,  40,  1,  b) ;  gender  of 
nouns  in  -x  of  3d  decl.,  43,  2;  excep¬ 
tions,  45,  4. 


266  General  Index 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


I. 

i,  i,  i ;  in  diphthongs,  2,  1 ;  pron.,  3,  1 ; 
from  e,  7,  i,  a\  from  a,  7,  i,b\  dropped 
by  syncope,  7,  4;  for  u  in  some  words, 
9,  1 ;  changes  to  e,  39 ;  dropped,  39 ; 
final  i  short,  363,  3;  becomes  j,  367, 
4- 

t-stems,  37 ;  39 ;  not  always  ending  in  -is, 
38,  3- 

-l,  gen.  and  voc.  of  2d  decl.  nouns  in  -ius 
and  -ium  in,  25,  1  and  2. 

- gen.  of  4th  decl.  nouns  in  -us,  49,  1. 

• - -  gen.  of  5th  decl.  nouns,  52,  2. 

z-stem,  vis,  41. 

i,  in  abl.,  3d  decl.,  38,  1 ;  39;  inadjs.,67, 
3 <a\  70,5;  participles,  70,  3;  patrials, 
70,  s,  c)  ;  nom.  pin.,  of  is,  87 ;  as  char¬ 
acteristic  of  4th  conj.,  98. 

- ia ,  149. 

Iambus,  366,  2. 

Iambic  measures,  370. 

- trimeter,  370. 

-ianus,  suffix,  152,  1. 

-ias,  suffix,  148,  6,  b) . 

-ibam,  in  imperf.,  116,  4,  b). 

-ibb,  in  future,  1x6,  4,  b). 

Ictus,  366,  5. 

-icus,  suffix,  151,  2;  152,  2. 
id  aetatis,  185,  2. 
id  genus,  185,  1. 
id  quod,  247,  1,  b. 
id  temporis,  185,  2. 

Ideal ‘you’;  see  Indefinite  second  per¬ 
son. 

idem,  87;  248. 
idem  ac ,  248,  2. 

Ides,  371,  2,  c). 

-ides,  suffix,  148,  6,  a). 

-ides,  suffix,  148,  6,  a). 

-ido,  suffix,  147,  3,  c). 
idoneus,  not  compared,  74,  2;  w.  dat., 
192,  2;  w.  ad  and  acc.,  192,  2  and  N. ; 
with  rel.  clause  of  purpose,  282,  3. 
-idus,  suffix,  150,  3. 

Id  us,  fern,  bv  exception,  50. 

-ie,  in  voc.  sing,  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  63,  1. 
iens,  pres,  partic.  from  eb,  132. 

- iens ,  as  ending  of  numeral  adverbs,  79 
and  N. 

-ier,  inf.  ending,  116,  4,  a. 

-ies,  nouns  in,  51. 
igitur,  344,  1,  c). 


ignis,  decl.,  38. 

-it,  in  gen.  sing,  of  io- stems,  25,  2. 

Us,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plu.  of  is,  87. 

-He,  suffix,  148,  3. 
llion,  decl.,  27. 

-His,  suffix,  151,  2. 

-His,  suffix,  150,  4. 

Illative  conjunctions,  344. 
ille,  87;  ‘the  following,’  246,  2;  ‘the 
former,’  246,  1 ;  ‘the  well-known,’  246, 
3  I  position,  350,  5,  b. 
illuc,  87,  footnote  3. 

-illus  ( a ,  uni),  diminutive  suffix,  148,  1. 
-im,  in  acc.,  3d  dec!.,  38,  1. 

-im,  -is  in  subjv.,  116,  4,  d. 
impedimentum,  impedimenta,  61. 
Imperative,  281;  tenses  in,  94,  3;  281, 
1 ;  future  indie,  with  force  of,  261,  3. 

- as  protasis  of  a  conditional  sent., 

305,  2;  as  apodosis,  302,  4. 

- sent,  in  indir.  disc.,  316. 

Imperfect  tense,  260;  conative,  260,  3; 
inceptive,  260,  3  ;  with  jam ,  etc.,  260,  4; 
epistolary  imp.,  265. 

Imperfect  subjv.  in  conditional  sent. 

referring  to  the  past,  304,  2. 
Impersonal  verbs,  138;  gen.  with,  209; 
dat.  with,  187,  II ,b\  in  passive,  256,  3; 
with  substantive  clauses  developed 
from  volitive,  295,  6;  of  result,  297,  2; 
with  infin.,  327,  1 ;  330. 
impetus,  defective,  57,  4. 

Implied  indir.  disc.,  323. 
imus,  ‘bottom  of,’  241,  1. 
in,  prep.,  143;  verbs  compounded  w.  in 
governing  acc.,  175,  2,  a,  2;  verbs 
compounded  w.  in  governing  dat., 
187,  III. 

in  with  abl.  of  place,  228 ;  with  abl.  of 
time,  230,  2  ;  231. 

-ina,  suffix,  148,  5. 

Inceptives,  155,  1. 

Inchoatives,  155,  1. 

Incomplete  action,  257,  I,  b\  267,  3. 
Indeclinable  adjs.,  70,  6;  80,  6. 

- nouns,  58;  gender  of,  15,  3. 

Indefinite  price,  225,  1;  203,  4. 

Indefinite  value,  203,  3. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  91;  252;  in  con¬ 
ditions,  302,  3. 

Indefinite  second  person,  280,  3;  356,  3  ; 
302,  2. 


General  Index.  267 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Indicative,  equivalent  to  Eng.  subjv., 
271. 

- in  apodosis  of  conditional  sent,  of 

3d  type,  304,  3  a)  and  b) . 
indigeo,  constr.,  214,  1,  N.  2. 
indignus,  with  abl.,  226,  2;  with  rel. 

clause  of  purpose,  282,  3. 

Indirect  discourse,  defined,  313  f.  ;  mood 
in,  313  ff. ;  tenses  in,  317-18;  declara¬ 
tive  sentences  in,  314 ;  interrog.  sen¬ 
tences  in,  315  ;  imperative  sentences  in, 
316;  conditional  sentences  in,  319-22; 
verbs  introducing,  331,  1;  verb  of 
saying,  etc.,  implied,  314,  2;  ind.  in 
subord.  clauses  of  indir.  disc.,  314,  3 ; 
inf.  for  subjv.  in  indir.  disc.,  314,  4; 
subj.  acc.  omitted,  314,  5;  implied 
indir.  disc.,  323. 

- questions,  300 ;  particles  introduc¬ 
ing,  300,  1,  a\  deliberative  subjv.  in 
indir.  quest.,  300,  2;  indir.  quest,  w. 
si,  300,  3;  double  indir.  questions, 
300,4;  indie,  in  indir.  quest.,  300,  6; 
in  conditional  sents.  of  3d  type,  322,  b. 

- reflexives,  244,  2. 

- object,  187. 

infer um,  inferior ,  73,  2. 

Infimus,  241,  1. 

Infinitive,  gender  of,  15,  A,  3;  in  - ier , 
116,4,  a\  force  of  tenses  in,  270; 
326  ff. 

-  lut.  perf.  inf.,  270,  4;  periphrastic 

future,  270,  3. 

-  without  subj.  acc.,  326-328;  314, 

5- 

- with  subj.  acc.,  329-331. 

- as  obj.,  328;  331. 

- as  subj.,  327;  330. 

- with  adjs.,  333. 

- denoting  purpose,  326,  N. 

- in  abl.  abs.,  227,  3. 

- in  exclamations,  334. 

- historical  inf.,  335. 

infitids,  constr.,  182,  5. 

Inflection,  11. 

Inflections,  11  ff. 

Infra ,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 
ingens,  comp.,  73,  4. 
injuria ,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 
injussu,  defective,  57,  1 ;  the  abl.,  219, 
2. 

ini-  =  ill-,  9,  2. 


innixus,  w.  abl.,  218,  3. 
inops,  decl.,  70,  2. 
inquam,  conj.,  134. 

Inseparable  prepositions,  159,  3,  N. 
insidiae,  plu.  only,  56,  3. 
instar,  58  ;  with  gen.,  198,  2. 
Instrumental  uses  of  abl.,  213;  218  ff. 
Intensive  pron.,  88. 

Intensives  (verbs),  155,  2. 
inter,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  compounded 
w.  verbs,  governing  dat.  187,  III;  to 
express  reciprocal  relation,  245. 
interdico,  const.,  188,  1,  a. 
interest,  constr.,  210;  211. 
interior,  comp.,  73,  1. 

Interjections,  145. 

Interlocked  order,  350,  11,  d. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  90. 

- sentences,  162;  particles,  162,  2; 

omitted,  162,  2,  d)  ;  in  indir.  disc., 
3IS- 

infra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

Intransitive  verbs,  with  cognate  acc., 
176,  4;  in  passive,  256,  3;  187,  II,  b\ 
impersonal  intransitives,  138,  IV. 

-inns,  suffix,  151,  2;  152,  1;  152,  3. 

-id,  verbs  of  3d  conj.,  109. 

-ior,  ius,  comparative  ending,  71. 
ipse,  88;  249;  as  indir.  reflexive,  249,  3. 
ipsius  and  ipsorum,  with  possessive  pro¬ 
nouns,  243,  3. 

-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  23. 

Irregular  comparison,  72  ff. ;  nouns,  42; 
verbs,  124  f. 

is,  87  ;  247;  as  personal  pron.,  247,  2. 

-is,  as  patronymic  ending,  148,  6,  b)  ; 
nouns  in  -is  of  3d  decl.,  37  f. ;  adjs.  in 
-is,  69. 

-is,  acc.  plu.,  3d  decl.,  37;  40. 

- ,  -this,  abl.  of  patrials  in,  70,  5,  c). 

istaec,  87,  footnote  2. 
iste,  87  ;  246,  4. 
is  tic,  6,  4. 

istuc,  6,  4  ;  87,  footnote  2. 
it  a,  in  answers,  162,  5. 
itaque,  344,  1 ,  a), 
iter ,  42,  1. 

-itia,  149. 

-ito,  frequentatives  in,  155,  2,  a. 

-ium ,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  25,  2;  ending  of 
gen.  plu.,  3d  decl.,  37  f.;  39;  40;  147, 
3,  b)  ;  148,  2. 


268  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


-ius,  gen.  and  voc.  sing,  of  nouns  in,  25, 
1  and  2;  of  adjs.,  63,  a ;  151,2;  152,2; 
152,  3  ;  -ius  for  -ius,  362,  1 ,  a). 

-ivus,  suffix,  151,  2. 

J- 

/.  1,  2. 

jacio ,  conj.,  109,  2,  a)  ;  compounds  of,  9, 
3;  362,  5- 

jam ,  etc.,  with  present  tense,  259,  4;  with 
imperfect,  260,  4. 
jecur,  dec!.,  42,  3. 
joed,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 
jocus,  plu.  of,  60,  2. 

Joining,  verbs  of,  construction,  358,  3. 
jubeo,  constr.,  295,  1,  a\  331,  II. 
judicor,  w.  inf.,  332,  c. 
jugerurn,  59,  1. 

Julian  calendar,  371. 
jungo,  w.  abl.,  222,  A. 

Juppiter,  dec!.,  41. 
juratus,  1 14,  2. 
jure,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 
jus  est,  with  substantive  clause,  297,  3. 
jussu,  57,  1;  the  abl.,  219,  2. 
jussive  subjv.,  275;  equiv.  to  a  protasis, 
.  305,  2. 

juvat,  w.  acc.,  175,  2,  c)  ;  with  inf.,  327,  1. 
Juvendle,  abl.,  70,  5,  b. 
juvenis,  a  cons,  stem,  38,  2;  comparison, 
73-  4- 

juvo,  with  acc.,  187,  II,  N. 
juxta ,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

K. 

k,  1,  1. 

Knowing,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.,  331,  I. 
Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204. 

L. 

/,  pron.,  3,  3. 

Labial  mutes,  2,  4. 

- stems,  31 ;  gender  of,  43,  3  ;  46,  1. 

lacer,  decl.,  65,  1. 
lacus,  decl.,  49,  3. 
laedo,  w.  acc.,  187,  II,  N. 
laetus,  w.  adverbial  force,  239. 
lapis,  decl.,  33. 
largior,  113. 

Latin  period,  351,  5. 

Length  of  syllables,  5,  B. 

Length  of  vowels,  5,  A. 

-lentus,  suffix,  151,  3. 


leo,  decl.,  35. 

Liber,  decl.,  23,  2. 
liber,  adj.,  decl.,  65,  1. 
libero,  constr.,  214,  1,  N.  1. 
liberta,  libertdbus,  21,  2,  e). 
liberum ,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  c). 
licet,  with  subjv.,  295,  6  and  8;  308,  a\ 
with  inf.,  327,  1 ;  330. 
licet,  adversative,  309,  4. 

Likeness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  192,  1. 

Limit  of  motion,  acc.  of.,  182. 

Lingual  mutes,  2,  4. 
linter,  deck,  40. 

Liquids,  2,  5. 

— —  stems,  34. 

Us,  deck,  40,  x,  d). 

Litotes,  375,  1. 
litter  a,  Utter  ae,  61. 

Locative,  17,  1 ;  in  -ae,  21,  2,  c)  ;  in  -t, 
25,  5 ;  syntax,  232 ;  apposition  with, 
169,  4;  loc.  uses  of  abl.,  213  ;  228  f. 
loco,  locis,  the  abl.,  228,  1,  b. 
locus,  plurals  of,  60,  2. 

Long 'syllables,  5,  B,  1. 

- vowels,  5,  A,  1. 

longius  =  longius  quam,  217,  3. 
longum  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  I ,  b. 
lubet,  lubido,  spelling,  9,  1. 
ludis,  the  abh,  230,  1. 

-Ius,  -la,  -lum,  diminutives  in,  148,  1. 
lux,  57,  7. 

M. 

m,  pron.,  3,  3;  changed  to  n  before  d,  c, 
8,  5,  c]  m- stem,  35,  footnote;  m- final 
in  poetry,  366,  10. 
maereo ,  w.  acc.,  175,  2,  b. 
magis,  comparison,  77,  1 ;  comparison 
with,  74. 

magni,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 
magnopere ,  compared,  77,  1. 
magnus ,  compared,  72. 

Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accusatives, 
1 77- 

male,  comparison,  77,  1.  • 

?naledicens,  comparison,  71,  5,  a), 
mdlim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 
mdllem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 
mdlo,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV,  and  a;  with 
subjv.,  296,  1,  a. 
malus,  comparison,  72. 
mane,  indeclinable,  58. 


General  Index .  269 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Manner,  abl.  of,  220. 

mare ,  decl.,  39,  2;  marl,  228,  1,  c). 

mas,  decl.,  40,  1,  d) . 

Masculine,  see  Gender. 

Masculine  caesura,  368,  3,  c. 

Material,  abl.  of,  224,  3. 
materies,  materia ,  59,  2,  a), 
mature ,  compared,  77,  1. 
maturus,  compared,  71,  3. 
maxitne,  adjs.  compared  with,  74. 
?naximi,  as  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 
maxumus.  9,  1. 

Means,  abl.  of,  218,  abl.  abs.  denoting, 
227,  2;  denoted  by  partic.,  337,  2,  d. 
med,  for  me,  84,  3. 

Mediae  (consonants),  2,  3,  b),  footnote  2. 

medius,  '  middle  of,’  241,  1. 

mei,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 

melior,  comparison,  72. 

melius  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  1  b). 

memini,  133;  constr.,  206,  1 ,  a\  2,  a. 

memor,  decl.,  70,  2. 

-men,  -mentum,  suffixes,  147,  4. 
metis  is,  38,  2,  footnote  1. 
mentem  {in  mentem  venire') ,  206,  3. 

-met,  enclitic,  6,  3 ;  84,  2. 

Metrical  close  of  sent.,  350,  12. 
vietub,  w.  subjv.,  296,  2. 
mi,  dat.,  84,  1. 
mi,  voc.  of  mens,  86,  2. 

Middle  voice,  verbs  in,  175,  2,  d). 
miles,  decl.,  33. 
militiae,  locative,  232,  2. 
mille,  milia,  decl.,  80,  5. 
minime,  comparison,  77,  1 ;  in  answers, 
162,  s,  b ). 

minimus,  comparison,  72. 
minor,  comparison,  72. 
minbris,  gen.  of  value,  203,3;  °f  price, 
203,  4. 

minus,  comparison,  77,  1 ;  =  minus  quam, 
217,  3 1  Qu°  minus,  295,  3 ;  si  minus, 
note,  2  and  a. 
miror ,  conj.,  113. 
mirus,  comparison,  75,  2. 
miscere,  with  abl.,  222,  A  ;  with  dat.,  358, 
3- 

misereor,  with  gen.,  209,  2. 
miseresco,  with  gen.,  209,  2. 
miseret,  constr.,  209. 

Mixed  stems,  40. 
inodium,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  a) . 


modo,  in  wishes  and  provisos,  310. 
moneo,  103;  constr.,  178,  1,  d). 
months,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  1 ;  decl., 
68,  1 ;  abl.  of  month  names,  70,  5,  a)  ; 
names,  371,  1. 

Moods,  94,  2. 

- in  independent  sentences,  271  f. 

- in  dependent  clauses,  282  f. 

Mora,  366,  1. 
morior,  conj.,  109,  2,  c). 
mos,  decl.,  36  ;  mores,  61. 
mbs  est,  with  subjv.,  clause,  297,  3. 
muliebre  secus,  constr.,  185,  1. 
Multiplication,  distributives  used  to  in¬ 
dicate,  81,  4,  c. 

multum,  77,  3;  compared,  77,  1. 
multus,  compared,  72 ;  with  another  adj., 
24b  3- 

mus,  decl.,  40,  1,  d) . 
mutare,  with  abl.,  222,  A. 

Mutes,  2,  3. 

Mute  stems,  30. 

N. 

n,  pronunciation,  3,  3;  «-stems,  35. 
n  adulterinum ,  2,  6. 

-nam,  appended  to  quis,  90,  2,  d. 

Names,  Roman,  373. 

Naming  verbs  of,  w.  two  accusatives, 
1 77.  i'. 

Nasals,  2,  6. 

Nasal  stems,  35. 

natu,  57,  1 ;  maximus  natu,  minimus 
natu,  73,  4,  footnotes,  4,  5 ;  226,  1. 
Natural  gender,  14. 
natus,  constr.,  215. 
navis,  decl.,  41,  4. 

nd,  vowel  short  before,  5,  2,  a. 

-ne,  6,  3  f. ;  162,  2,  e)  ;  300,  1,  b)  ;  -ne .  .  . 
an,  162,  4;  in  indir.  double  questions, 
300,  4. 

ne,  in  prohibitions,  276;  with  hortatory 
subjv.,  274 ;  with  jussive,  275  ;  with  con¬ 
cessive,  278 ;  with  optative,  279 ;  in 
purpose  clauses,  282;  in  substantive 
clauses,  295  f.,  296;  in  provisos,  310. 

ne,  1  lest,’  282,  1 ;  2.96,  2. 
tie  non  for  ut  after  verbs  of  fearing,  296, 
2,  a.  s 

ne  .  .  quidetn,  347,  1 ;  2. 

Nearness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  192,  1. 
nec,  341.  1.  d)  ;  nec  us  quam ,  341,  2,  d) . 


2  JO 


General  Index. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


necesse  est,  w.  subjv.,  295,  8. 
necne,  in  double  questions,  162,  4. 
nefas,  indeclinable,  58. 

Negatives,  347,  2;  two  negatives  strength¬ 
ening  the  negation,  347,  2. 
nemo,  defective,  57,  3;  use,  252,  6. 
nequam,  indeclinable,  70,  6;  compared, 
72. 

neque ,  341,  1,  d)\  neque  in  purpose 
clauses,  282,  1,  e. 
nequed ,  conj.,  137,  1. 
ne  quis ,  use,  91,  5. 
rieqniter ,  compared,  77,  1. 
nescid  an,  300,  5. 

nescid  quis,  as  indef.  pron.,  253,  6. 

Neuter,  see  Gender. 

neuter,  decl.,  66;  use,  92,  1. 

neve  (neu) ,  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  1,  d. 

nf  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  1,  a. 

nihil,  indeclinable,  58. 

nihil  est  cur,  quin,  295,  7. 

tiingit,  ‘  it  snows,’  138,  1. 

nisi,  306,  1  and  4. 

nisi  forte,  306,  5. 

nisi  si,  306,  5. 

nisi  verb,  306,  5. 

nitor,  constr.,  218,  3. 

nix,  decl.,  40,  1,  d) . 

No,  in  answers,  162,  5,  b. 

-no-  class  of  verbs,  117,  4. 
noli,  with  inf.,  in  prohibitions,  276,  b. 
nblim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 
nollem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 
nolo,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a\  276, 
2,  a\  with  subjv.,  296,  1,  a. 
nbmeii,  decl.,  35;  nomen  est,  constr.,  190, 
1 ;  nomen ,  as  part  of  Roman  name,  373. 
Nominative,  17;  170;  used  for  voc.,  171, 
1;  nom.  sing.,  lacking,  57,  6;  pred. 
nom.,  168. 

Nones,  371,  2,  b). 

non,  in  answers,  162,  5,  b)  ;  with  poten. 

subjv.,  280;  with  deliberative,  277. 
non  dubito  quin,  with  subjv.,  298;  non 
dubito,  w.  inf.,  298,  a  ;  b. 
non  modo  for  non  modo  non,  343,  2,  a. 
nonne,  162,  2,  a)  ;  300,  1,  b) ,  N. 
non  quia,  with  ind.,  286,  1,  c\  with  subjv. 
286,  1,  b. 

non  quin,  with  subjv.,  286,  1,  b. 
non  quod,  with  ind., 286, 1,  c;  with  subjv., 
286,  1,  b. 


nos  =  ego,  242,  3. 
nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 
nostrum,  as  gen.  of  whole,  242,  2;  as 
possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 

Nouns,  12  ff. ;  353;  derivation  of,  147  f. 

- in  -is  not  always  i-stems,  38,  1. 

- of  agency,  force,  353,  4. 

- used  in  plu.  only,  56. 

- used  in  sing,  only,  55. 

- used  only  in  certain  cases,  57. 

- indeclinable,  38. 

- with  change  of  meaning  in  plural,  61. 

- syntax,  166  f. 

- predicate,  agreement  of,  etc.,  167  f. 

- appositives,  agreement  of,  etc., 

169  f. 

Noun  and  adj.  forms  of  the  verb,  95,  2. 
novi,  as  pres.,  262,  A. 
novus,  compared,  73,  3. 

ns,  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  1,  a. 

-ns,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  40,  1,  c). 

nt,  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  2,  a. 
nubes,  decl.,  40,  1,  a. 

nulla  causa  est  cur,  quin,  295,  7. 
nullus ,  decl.,  66;  57,  3;  use,  92,  1. 
num,  162,  2,  b)  ;  300,  1,  b) . 

Number,  16;  94,  4. 

Numerals,  78  f. ;  peculiarities  in  use  of, 81. 
numquis,  decl.,  91,  5. 
nuper ,  compared,  77,  1. 

-nus,  suffix,  151,  2. 

o. 

0,  vowel,  2,  1 ;  as  element  in  diphthong 
ce,  2,  1 ;  pron.,  3,  1 ;  alternating  w.  u 
in  certain  classes  of  words,  9,  1 ;  2:4; 
^-sterns,  23  ;  24 ;  in  cito,  77,  2,  a ;  in 
dub,  80,  2;  in  ego,  84;  363,4,0;  in 
modo,  363,  4,  a ;  in  compounds  of  pro-, 
363,  4,  c;  in  amo,  leb,  etc.,  363,  4,  b. 

5,  pron.,  3,  1 ;  for  au,  7,  1,  e\  by  contrac¬ 
tion,  7,  2;  in  abl.  sing,  of  2d  deck,  23; 
in  nom.  sing,  of  3d  deck,  35  ;  in  Greek 
nouns,  47,  8;  in  adverbs, 77,  2;  in  am- 

bb,  80,  2,  a\  in  personal  endings,  96. 
ob,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  verbs  compounded 

w.  governing  dat.,  187,  III. 

Obeying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
Object,  direct,  172  f. ;  two  objects  w.  same 

verb,  177;  178;  indirect,  187  f. ;  inf.  as 
obj.,  326;  328;  329;  331. 

Objective  gen.,  200. 


General  Index.  271 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Obligation,  verb  in  expression  of,  304,  3, 
a ;  see  also  Duty. 

Oblique  cases,  17,  2. 
obliviscor,  constr.,  206,  1,  b  ;  2. 
octodecim  (for  undeviginti) ,  81,  2. 
odi,  133. 

oe,  2,  1 ;  pron.,  3,  2. 

Old  forms,  familids,  21,  2,  <2;  auldi,  21, 
2,  b ;  servo?,  aevom,  equos ,  £/£.,  24; 
vied,  ted ,  84,  3 ;  85,  3. 

olle,  archaic  for  ille,  87. 

(a,  zm),  148,  1. 

-0/zz,  later  -zz/;z  in  2d  decl.,  23. 

-on,  Greek  nouns  2d  decl.  in,  27. 
Onomatopoeia,  375,  4. 
opera,  operae,  61. 

Operations  of  nature,  impersonal  verbs 
expressing,  138,  I. 
opinione  with  comparatives,  217,  4. 
opts,  57,  6 ;  opes,  61. 

oportet,  138,  II;  w.  subjv.,  295,  6;  8;  w. 
inf.,  327 ;  330. 

oportuit,  with  pres.  inf.  ‘  ought  to  have,’ 
270,  2;  with  perf.  inf.,  270,  2,  a. 
oppidum  ( Genavam  ad  oppidum),  182, 
2,  a. 

Optative  subjv.,  272;  279;  substantive 
clauses  developed  from,  296. 
optimates,  deck,  40,  I,  d). 
optimus,  comp.,  72. 

opto,  w.  subst.  cl.  developed  from  opta¬ 
tive,  296,  1. 
optumus,  spelling,  9,  1. 
opus  est,  w.  abl.,  218,  2;  w.  partic.,  218, 
2,  c. 

-or,  nouns  in,  34;  36;  -or  for  -os,  36; 
gender  of  nouns  in,  43,  1;  exceptions 
in  gender,  44,  2;  as  suffix,  147,  2. 
Oratio  Obliqua,  313  f. 

Order  of  words,  348  f. 

Ordinals,  78,  1 ;  79. 
orior,  conjugation,  123,  VII. 
oriundus,  constr.,  215,  2. 

3rd,  with  acc.,  178,  1 ,  a). 

Orpheus,  decl.  47,  6. 

Orthography,  peculiarities,  9. 
ortus,  constr,,  215. 
os,  deck,  57,  7. 
os,  deck,  42. 

-os,  later  -us  in  2d  deck,  23. 

-os,  later  -or  in  3d  deck,  36,  1. 

- os,  Greek  nouns,  2d  deck  in,  27. 


-osus,  form  of  suffix,  151,  3. 
ovis,  deck,  38,  1. 

Oxymoron,  375,  2. 

P. 

p,  pron. ,3,  3;  by  assimilation,  8,  4;  by 
partial  assimilation,  8,  5. 
paenitet,  138,  II  ;  with  gen.,  209. 
palam,  as  prep.  w.  abh,  144,  2. 

Palatal  mutes,  2,  4. 
paluster,  deck,  68,  1. 

Parasitic  vowels,  7,  3. 
paratus ,  with  infin.,  333. 

Pardon,  verbs  signifying,  w.  dat.,  187, 
II. 

par  id,  109,  2,  a), 
pars,  partes,  61. 
parte,  abl.  of  place,  228,  1,  b. 
partem,  adverbially  used,  185,  1. 
Participation,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  1. 
Participial  stem,  97,  III ;  formation,  119. 
Participles,  in  -arts  and  -ens,  70,  3 ;  gen. 
plu.  of  in  -um,  70,  7;  pres.  act.  partic., 
97,1,5;  101 ;  103;  105;  107;  no;  113; 
fut.  act.  partic.,  97,  III ;  as  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  the  verb,  p.  55,  foot¬ 
note;  100;  101 ,  103;  105;  107;  no; 
113;  perf.  pass,  partic.,  97,  III;  102; 
104;  106;  108;  in;  113;  gerundive, 
see  Gerundive;  fut.  act.,  peculiar  for¬ 
mation  of,  119,  4;  perf.  pass.,  w.  act.  or 
neuter  meaning,  114,  2;  of  deponents, 
112,  b\  syntax,  336  ff. 

Participles,  fut.  act.,  119,  4;  denoting 
purpose,  337,  4. 

- perf.  act.,  how  supplied,  356,  2. 

- perf.  pass.,  336,  3 ;  as  pres.,  336,  5. 

- pres,  partic.,  336,  2  ;  with  conative 

force,  336,  2,  a. 

- perf.  pass.,  with  active  meaning, 

1 14,  2;  pred.  use  of  partic.,  337,  2  ; 
participles  equivalent  to  subordinate 
clauses,  337,  2  ;  to  coordinate  clauses, 
337,  5  ;  w.  opus  est,  218,  2,  c\  with 
noun  equivalent  to  abstract  noun, 
33 7,  6;  with  habeo,  337,  7. 

- with  video,  audio,  facio,  etc.,  337,  3 

Particles,  139  f.  ;  341  f. 

Partitive  apposition,  169,  5. 

Partitive  gen.,  so  called,  201. 

Parts  of  speech,  10. 


272  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


parum ,  comparison,  77,  1. 
parvi ,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 
parvus ,  comparison,  72. 

Passive,  verbs  in,  with  middle  meaning, 
175,  2,  d)  ;  256;  verbs  governing  dat, 
used  in  pass,  only  impersonally,  187, 
II,  b  ;  constr.  of  passive  verbs  of  say¬ 
ing,  etc.,  332,  and  note  ;  how  supplied 
when  missing,  356,  1. 
patior ,  conj.,  109,  2,  c )  ;  1x3  ;  with  inf., 
33x>  HI. 

Patrial  adjs.,  70,  5,  c). 

Patronymics,  148,  6. 
paulian ,  formation,  77,  3. 
paulus ,  spelling,  9,  2. 
pauper ,  decl.,  70,  1. 
pedester ,  decl.,  68,  1. 
pelagus ,  gender  of,  26,  2. 
pelvis ,  decl.,  38,  1. 

Penalty,  abl.  of,  208,  2, 
penates,  decl.,  40,  1,  t/). 
penes ,  prep.,  w.  acc.,  141. 

Pentameter,  dactylic,  369. 

Penult,  6,  2. 

prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  with  acc.  of  time 
and  space,  181,  2. 

Perceiving,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.,  331,  I. 
Perfect  active  ptc.,  how  supplied  in  Latin, 
356.  2. 

Perfect  pass,  partic.,  force  of  w.  depo¬ 
nent  verbs,  1x2,  b  ;  dat.  of  agency 
sometimes  used  w.,  189,  2  ;  opus ,  218, 

2,  c. 

Perfect  stem,  97,  II ;  formation,  118. 

- in  -dvi,  - evi ,  ~ivi  contracted,  116, 

1. 

- historical  perf.,  262. 

- with  force  of  pres.,  262;  133,  2; 

pres.  perf.  and  hist.  perf.  distinguished, 
237,  1  and  2  ;  gnomic  perf.,  262,  1 ; 
perf.  subjv.  as  historical  tense,  268,  6 
and  7,  b\  perf.  inf.  w.  oportuit ,  270,  2  ; 
perf.  prohibitive,  279,  a ;  perf.  potential, 
280,  x  and  2  :  perf.  concessive,  278 ; 
sequence  of  tenses  after  perf.  inf., 
268,  2. 

Periodic  structure,  351,  5. 

Periphrastic  conj.,  115 ;  269,3;  in  con- 
ditional  sentences  of  the  3d  type,  304, 

3,  b)  ;  in  indir.  disc.,  322  ;  in  passive, 

337.  8,  b,  1. 

- fut.  inf.,  270,  3. 


Persons,  95,  4  ;  2d  sing,  of  indefinite 
subject,  356,  3. 

Personal  pronouns,  84  ;  242  ;  as  subject, 
omission  of,  166,  2  ;  as  objective  geni¬ 
tives,  242,  2. 

- endings,  96. 

persuaded,  with  dat.,  187,  II,  a  ;  with 
subjv.,  295,  1. 

Persuading,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
ph,  2,  3,  ^  ;  2,  4  ;  3,  3. 
piget,  with  gen.,  209. 

Pity,  verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  209,  1  and  2. 

Place  to  which,  182  ;  whence,  229  ;  place 
where,  228. 
placitus ,  force,  114,  2. 

Pleasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II,  a  ;  w. 

acc.,  187,  II,  a,  N. 
plebes,  heteroclite,  59,  2,  d). 
plebi,  gen.,  52,  2. 

Plenty  and  Want,  verbs  of,  constr.,  212; 
cf.  218,  8. 

plenus,  w.  gen.,  218,  8,  a. 

Pleonasm,  374,  3. 
pleraque ,  6,  5. 
pluit,  138,  I. 

Pluperfect  tense,  formation,  100  ;  syntax( 
263  ;  265  ;  287,  2  ;  288,  3  ;  with  im¬ 
perfect  meaning,  133,  2. 

Plural,  16  ;  in  5th  decl.,  52,  4  ;  of  proper 
names,  55,  4,  a)  ;  of  abstract  nouns, 
55,  4,  c)  :  nouns  used  in,  only,  56  ; 
with  change  of  meaning,  61  ;  stylistic 
use,  353,  1  ;  2. 

PI ur alia  tantum,  56  ;  81,  4,  b). 

pluris,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 

plus,  decl.,  70  ;  70,  4  ;  =  plus  quam, 

217.  3- 

poema,  decl.,  47,  5. 

Polysyndeton,  341,  4,  b). 

por-  ,  inseparable  prep.,  159,  3,  e. 

porticus,  gender,  50. 

portus,  decl.,  49,  3. 

posco,  constr.,  178,  1,  a). 

Position  of  clauses,  351,  3. 

- of  words,  348;  350;  351. 

Possessive  dat.,  190;  gen.,  198:  con¬ 
trasted  with  dat.  of  poss.,  359,  1. 
Possessive  pronouns,  86;  243;  =  objec¬ 
tive  gen.,  243,  2  ;  position  *of,  243, 
1.  a. 

Possibility,  verbs  of,  put  in  indie,  in  cond. 
sentences,  304,  3,  a. 


Gen  era  l  In  dex.  273 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


possum,  126  ;  with  present  infin.,  ‘  I 
might,'  271,  i,  a)  ;  in  cond.  sentences, 
3°4.  3.  a. 

post,  prep.  w.  acc.,  144,  1 ;  in  expressions 
of  time,  357,  1. 

Post-positive  words,  343,  1,  c). 
posteaquam ,  287,  1 ;  4. 
posterns,  posterior ,  comp.,  73,  2. 
posteaquam,  287  ;  separated,  287,  3  ;  with 
imperf.  ind.,  287,  4  ;  w.  pluperf.  ind., 
287,  3  ;  with  subjv.,  287,  5. 
postremus,  use,  241,  2. 
pos tridie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a. 
postuld,  constr.,  178,  1,  a. 

Potential  subjv.,  272  ;  280. 
potior,  with  gen.,  212,  2  ;  with  abl.,  218, 
1  ;  in  gerundive  constr.,  339,  4. 

- adj.,  73,  1. 

potius,  compared,  77,  1. 
potui,  poteram,  in  apodosis  of  conditional 
sent,  of  3d  type,  304,  3,  a)  ;  in  indir. 
disc.,  322,  c. 

potui,  with  pres.  inf.  =  ‘  could  have,’ 
270,  2. 

potuerim,  in  dependent  apodosis,  322,  c. 
potus ,  force,  114,  2. 

prae ,  prep.,  w.  abl.,  142;  verbs  com¬ 
pounded  with  governing  dat.,  187,  III ; 
short  in  praeacutus,  etc.,  362,  2. 
Praendmen,  373. 
prae  sens,  125. 
praesum,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 
prdnsus,  force,  114,  2. 
preci,  -em,  -e,  57,  5,  a. 

Predicate,  163. 

- gen.,  198,  3  ;  203,  5. 

Predicate  nouns,  167;  168;  in  acc.,  177; 
predicate  nouns  or  adjs.  attracted  to 
dat.,  327,  2,  a;  to  nom.,  328,  2. 

- adjectives,  232,  2;  177,  2. 

Prepositions,  assimilation  of,  in  com¬ 
pounds, 8, 4;  9,2;  with  acc.,  141 ;  with 
abl.,  142;  as  adverbs,  144;  inseparable 
prepositions,  159,  3,  N. ;  position,  350, 
7;  prepositional  phrases  as  attributive 
modifiers,  353,  5;  anastrophe  of,  144, 
3;  141,  2;  142,  3;  usage  with  abl.  of 
sep.,  214  f.  ;  with  abl.  of  source, 
215- 

Present  tense,  259;  gnomic,  259,  1;  co¬ 
native,  259,  2;  historical,  259,3;  with 
jam,  pridem,jam  diu,  etc.,  259,  4;  with. 


dum,  ‘  while,’  293, 1 ;  in  Repraesentatio , 
318;  pres,  subjv.,  in  -bn,  127,  2;  pres, 
partic.,  see  Participle. 

- stem,  97,  I ;  formation,  117. 

- perfect,  257,  1  and  2. 

Preventing,  verbs  of,  w.  subjv.  clause, 
295.  3- 

Price,  indefinite,  special  words  in  gen., 

203,  4;  also  225,  1. 

- ,  abl.  of,  225. 

pridie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a;  with  acc., 
144.  2. 

Primary  tenses,  see  Principal  tenses. 
primus,  '  first  who,’  241,  2. 
princeps,  decl.,  31. 

Principal  parts,  99;  list,  p.  251. 

- tenses,  258  f. 

prior,  compared,  73,  1. 
prius,  compared,  77,  1. 
priusquam,  with  ind.,  291;  with  subjv., 
292;  separated,  291. 

Privation,  verbs  of,w.  abl.,  214,  1,  £and  c. 
pro ,  prep.  w.  abl.,  142. 
procul,  as  prep.  w.  abl.,  144,  2. 
prohibed,  w.  abl.,  214,  2;  w.  subjv. 
clause,  295,  3. 

Prohibitions,  method  of  expressing,  276. 
Prohibitive  subjv.,  276. 

Prolepsis,  374,  5. 

Pronominal  adjs.,  253. 

Pronouns,  defined,  82;  classes,  83;  per¬ 
sonal,  84;  reflexive,  85;  possessive, 
86;  demonstrative,  87  ;  intensive,  88  ; 
relative,  89;  interrogative,  90;  indefi¬ 
nite,  91;  pronominal  adjs.,  92;  per¬ 
sonal,  omission  of,  as  subject,  166,  2; 
syntax,  242  f. ;  personal,  242  f. ; 
possess.,  243  f. ;  reflex.,  244  b;  recip¬ 
rocal,  245  f. ;  demonstrative,  246  f. ; 
relative,  250  f. ;  indef.,  252  f. ;  position 
350.  5 1  355- 

Pronunciation,  Roman,  3. 
prope,  compared,  77,  1. 

Proper  names,  abbreviated,  373. 

- nouns,  12,  1. 

propior,  compared,  73,  1 ;  with  acc.,  141, 
3- 

proprius,  with  dat.,  204,  2,  a;  with  gen., 

204,  2. 

propter,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

Prosody,  360  f. 
prosper,  decl.,  65,  1. 


274  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


prosum,  conj.,  125,  N. 

Protasis,  301 ;  denoting  repeated  action, 
302,  3 ;  without  si,  305 ;  of  indef.  2d 
sing.,  302,  2;  see  Conditions. 

Provisos,  310. 

pr oxime,  -us,  comp.,  73,  1 ;  77,  1 ;  with 
acc.,  141,  3. 
prudens,  decl.,  70. 

-pte,  86,  3. 

pudet,  with  gen.,  209;  w.  inf.,  327,  1. 
puer,  decl.,  23. 
pule  her,  comp.,  71,  3. 
puppis,  decl.,  38,  1. 

Purpose,  dat.  of  purpose,  191 ;  with  dat, 
and  gerundive,  191,  3 ;  w.  ad  and  acc., 
192,  2;  subjv.  of  purp.,  282,  1;  w. 
quo,  282,  1 ,  a\  w.  utne,  282,  1  ,b\  with 
non  in  purpose  clause,  282,  I ,c\  neve 
(neu)  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  1,  d ; 
neque,  282,  1,  e\  rel.  clauses  of  pur¬ 
pose,  282,  2;  w.  dignus,  indignus,  ido- 
neus,  282,  3 ;  independent  of  principal 
verb,  282,  4;  inf.,  denoting  purpose, 
362,  N. ;  fut.  partic.,  denoting  purpose, 
337.  45  gerund,  w.  ad,  338,  3;  gerun¬ 
dive,  339,  2;  supine,  340. 

Q. 

- qu -,  pron.,  3,  3 ;  both  letters  consonants, 
74.  «• 

quaerd ,  w.  indir.  questions,  300,  1,  b) ,  N. 
quaeso,  137,  2. 

Quality,  gen.,  203 ;  abl.,  224. 
quam,  in  comparisons,  217,  2;  with  su¬ 
perb,  240,  3 ;  ante  .  .  .  quam,  post .  .  . 
quam,  prius  .  .  .  quam,  see  antequam, 
postquam,  priusquam ;  quam  qui,  283, 
2,  a. 

qua?n  si,  307,  x. 
quam  ut,  with  subjv.,  284,  4. 
quamquam,  with  ind.,  309,  2;  with  subjv., 
3°9,  6 1  =  '  and  yet,’  309,  5. 
quamvis,  with  subjv.,  309,  1 ;  6 ;  denot¬ 
ing  a  fact,  309,  6. 
quando,  286,  3,  b. 

quanti,  as  gen.  of  price,  203,  4;  of  value, 
203,  3. 

Quantity,  5. 

- of  syllables,  5,  B\  363  f. 

- of  vowels,  s,  A ;  362;  in  Greek 

words,  365. 
quasi,  307,  1. 


quatio,  conj.,  109,  2,  a). 

- que ,  accent  of  word  preceding,  6,  3 ;  6, 
5;  341,  1,  b)  ;  2,  a) ;  4,  c). 
queo,  137,  1. 

Questions,  word,  sentence,  162  f. ;  rhetor¬ 
ical,  162,  3;  double  (alternative),  162, 
4 ;  indirect,  300 ;  questions  in  indir. 
disc.,  315. 

qui,  reh,  89 ;  interr.,  90 ;  indef.,  91 ;  for 
quis  in  indir.  questions,  90,  2,  b ;  with 
ne,  si,  nisi,  num,  91,  5 ;  in  purpose 
clauses,  282,  2;  abb,  90,  2,  a. 
quia,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  1. 
quicum,  89. 

quicumque ,  decl.,  91,  8. 
quidam,  decl.,  91 ;  syntax,  252,  3. 
quidem,  post-positive,  347,  1. 
quilibet,  decl.,  91. 

quin,  in  result  clauses,  284,  3 ;  in  sub¬ 
stantive  clauses,  295,  3;  298;  =  qui 
non  in  clauses  of  characteristic,  283,  4  ; 
with  ind.,  281,  3;  in  indir.  disc.,  322 
and  a ;  nulla  causa  est  quin ,  295,  7. 
quinam ,  90,  2,  d. 

Quintilis  (  =  Julius') ,  371. 

quippe  qui,  in  clauses  of  characteristic, 

283,  3- 

Quirites,  dech,  40,  1,  d. 
quis,  indef.,  91 ;  interr.,  90;  90,  2,  c\  252, 
1 ;  nescio  quis,  253,  6 ;  with  ne,  si,  nisi, 
mini,  91,  5. 
quis  est  qui,  283,  2. 
quis  —  quibus,  89. 
quisnam,  inflection,  90,  2,  d. 
quispiam,  inflection,  91. 
quis  quam,  inflection,  91 ;  usage,  252, 
4* 

quisque,  inflection,  91 ;  usage,  252,  5. 
quisquis,  inflection,  91,  8. 
quivis ,  inflection,  91. 
qtio,  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  1,  a. 
quoad,  with  ind.,  293 ;  with  subjv.,  293, 
III,  2. 

quod,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  1 ;  in  sub¬ 
stantive  clauses,  299;  331,  V,  a ;  ‘as 
regards  the  fact,’  299,  2. 
quod  audierim,  283,  5 ;  quod  sciam, 

283,  5- 

quod  (jJ)  ,  adverbial  acc.,  185,  2. 
quom,  early  form  of  cum ,  9,  1. 
quo  minus,  after  verbs  of  hindering, 
295.  3l 


General  Index.  275 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


quoniam,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  1. 
quoque ,  post-positive,  347. 

-quus,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  24. 

R. 

r,  pron.,  3,  3 ;  for  s  between  vowels 
(‘  Rhotacism  8,  1. 
rapid ,  conj.,  109,  2,  a), 
rastrutn,  plurals  of,  60,  2. 
ratus,  ‘  thinking,’  336,  5. 

Reciprocal  pronouns,  85,  2;  245;  cf. 
253.  3- 

Reduplication  in  perf.,  118,  4,  <2)  ;  in 
pres.,  1 17,  7. 

Reference,  dat.  of,  188. 
refert ,  constr.,  210;  211,  4. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  85  ;  244 ;  249,  3. 
rego,  conj.,  105. 

Regular  verbs,  101-113. 
ret,  362,  1,  b). 
reicio,  quantity,  362,  5. 

Relative  adverbs,  in  rel.  clauses  of  purp., 
282,  2. 

- - clauses,  of  purp.,  282,  2 ;  w.  dignus, 

indignus,  idoneus,  282,  3 ;  of  charac¬ 
teristic,  283 ;  denoting  cause  or  oppo¬ 
sition,  283,  3;  restrictive,  283,  5;  intro¬ 
duced  by  quin,  283,  4 ;  284,  3 ;  con¬ 
ditional  rel.  clauses,  311;  312,  1  and 
2;  relative  as  subj.  of  inf.,  314,  4; 
rel.  clause  standing  first,  251,  4,  a. 

- pronouns,  inflection,  89;  use,  250 

ff. ;  =  Eng.  demonstrative,  251,  6; 
agreement,  250;  not  omitted  as  in 
Eng.,  251,  5 ;  fondness  for  subordinate 
clauses,  355. 
relinquitur  ut,  297,  2. 
reliqui,  use,  253,  5. 
reliquutn  est,  with  subjv.,  295,  6. 
remex,  deck,  32. 

Remembering,  verbs  of,  cases  used  w., 
206.  - 

Reminding,  verbs  of,  const.,  207. 
r  em  inis  cor ,  constr.,  206,  2. 

Removing,  verbs  of,  w.  abb,  214,  2. 
reposed,  constr.,  178,  1,  a). 

Ripraesentatio ,  318. 

requies,  requiem,  requietem ,  59,  2,  e) . 

res,  deck,  51. 

Resisting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.  187,  II. 
Restrictive  clauses,  283,  5. 

Result,  acc.  of,  173,  B ;  176 ;  clauses  of, 


284;  297;  in  dependent  apodosis, 

322,  and  a\  sequence  of  tense  in, 
268,  6. 

revertor,  semi-deponent,  114,  3. 
Rhetorical  questions,  162,  3;  277,  a\  in 
indir.  disc.,  315,  2. 

Rhotacism,  8,  1 ;  36,  x. 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  A,  1. 
rogatu,  abl.  of  cause,  219,  2. 
rogo}  constr.,  178,  1,  c )  ;  178,  1,  a). 
Roman  pronunciation,  3. 

Root,  17,  3,  footnote  1. 

-rs,  deck  of  nouns  in,  40,  1,  c). 

rure,  abl.  place  from  which,  229,  1,  b. 

ruri,  abl.  place  in  which,  228,  1,  c. 

rus ,  57,  7;  acc.  limit  of  motion,  182,  1,  b 

S. 

s,  pron.,  3,  3;  changed  to  r  between 
vowels,  8,  1 ;  s,  ss,  from  dt,  it,  is, 
8,  2. 

-s,  deck  of  monosyllables  in,  preceded 
by  one  or  more  consonants,  40,  1,  b). 
j-stems,  36. 

sacer,  deck,  65;  comparison,  73,  3. 

saepe,  compared,  77, 1. 

sal,  57,  7;  sales,  61. 

salubris,  deck,  68,  3. 

salutaris,  comp.,  73,  4. 

salve,  salvete,  137,  4. 

Samnites,  deck,  40,  1,  d) . 
sane,  in  answers,  162,  5. 
sapid,  conj.,  109,  2,  a), 
satur,  deck,  65,  2. 

Saying,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.  of  ind.  disc., 
33b  E 

scio,  quod  sciam,  283,  5. 

-xc<9-class  of  verbs,  117,  6;  155. 
s  crib  ere  ad  aliquem,  358,  2. 
se,  use,  244. 

se-,  compounds  of,  159,  3,  e. 

Second  conj.,  103  ;  deck,  23  ;  peculiarities, 
25;  second  person  indefinite,  280,  3; 
356,  3 ;  302,  2. 

Secondary  tenses,  see  Historical  tenses. 

secundum,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

securis,  deck,  38,  1. 

secus ,  compared,  77,  1. 

secus  (virile  secus),  185,  1;  58. 

secutus,  1  following,’  336,  5. 

sed,  se,  85,  3. 

sed-,  compounds  of,  159,  3,  e. 


276  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


sed,  343,  i,  a), 
sedlle ,  decl.,  39. 
sementis,  decl.,  38,  1. 

Semi-deponent  verbs,  114. 

Semivowels,  2,  8. 
senex,  decl.,  42  ;  compared,  73,  4. 
Sentences,  classification,  160  f. ;  simple 
and  compound,  164;  sentence-struc¬ 
ture,  351 ;  sentence  questions,  162,  2. 
sententia,  abl.  of  accordance,  220,  3. 
Separation,  dat.  of,  188,  2,  d)  ;  gen.,  212, 
3;  abl.,  214. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  267;  268. 
sequester ,  decl.,  68,  1. 
sequitur  ut,  297,  2. 
sequor,  conj.,  113. 

Serving,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
servos,  decl.,  24. 
sese,  decl.,  85. 

Sex  til  is  (  =  Augustus) ,  371. 

Sharing,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  1. 

Short  syllables,  5,  B,  2;  vowels,  5,  A,  2. 
Showing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  177. 
si,  with  indir.  questions,  300,  3 ;  in  pro¬ 
tasis,  301 ;  omitted,  305. 
signifer,  decl.,  23,  2. 
silentid,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 

Silvester,  decl.,  68,  3. 
similis,  with  dat.,  204,  3;  with  gen.,  204, 
3  ;  comp.,  71,  4. 
si  minus,  use,  306,  2. 

Simple  sentences,  164. 
simul,  as  prep.,  w.  abl.,  144,  2. 
simul  ac,  w.  ind.,  287,  1;  2. 
si  non,  usage,  306,  1  and  2. 
sin,  usage,  306,  3. 
sin  minus,  306,  2,  a. 

Singular,  second  person  indefinite,  280, 

3 1  356>  3 1  3°2-  2- 
sino,  with  inf.,  331,  III. 
sit  is,  decl.,  38,  1. 

Smelling,  verbs  of,  constr.,  176,  5. 

Soft  consonants,  2,  3,  b),  footnote  2. 

-so,  verbs  in,  155,  2. 
socer,  decl.,  23,  2. 
socium,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  c). 
sol,  decl.,  57,  7. 
soled,  semi-dep.,  114,  1. 
solitus,  used  as  present  partic.,  336,  5. 
solus,  66;  solus  est  qui  with  subjv.,  283, 
2. 

Sonant  consonants,  2,  3,  b),  footnote  2. 


Soracte,  decl.,  39,  2. 

Sounds,  classification,  2. 

- of  the  letters,  3. 

Source,  abl.,  215. 

Space,  extent  of,  181. 

Sparing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
Specification,  abl.  of,  226. 
spei,  quantity,  362,  1,  b. 

Spelling,  see  Orthography. 

Spirants,  2,  7. 

Spondaic  verses,  368,  2. 

Spondee,  368,  1. 

sponte  sud,  abl.  accordance,  220,  3. 
spontis,  -e,  defective,  57,  2,  b. 

Statutes,  fut.  imperative  used  in,  281, 1,  b. 
Stem,  17,  3. 

- .verb,  97,  1 17. 

Structure  of  sentences,  see  Sentences. 
Style,  hints  on,  352  f. 
su  =  sv,  3,  3. 

sub,  prep,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  143;  com¬ 
pounds  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 

Subject,  163 ;  nom.,  166;  acc.,  184;  sub¬ 
ject  acc.  of  inf.,  184;  omitted,  314,5; 
clauses  as  subject,  294 ;  295,  6 ;  inf.  as 
subj.,327;  330. 

Subjective  gen.,  199. 

Subjunctive,  tenses  in,  94,  3. 

- in  independent  sentences,  272;  by 

attraction,  324;  tenses  of,  266  f. ; 
method  of  expressing  future  time  in, 
269;  volitive  (hortatory,  jussive, 
prohibitive,  deliberative,  concessive), 
273  f. ;  optative  (wishes),  279;  poten¬ 
tial,  280;  in  clauses  of  purpose,  282; 
of  characteristic,  283 ;  of  result,  284 ; 
of  cause,  286;  temporal  clauses  with 
postquam,  postedquam,  287,  5;  tempo¬ 
ral  clauses  with  cum,  288-290;  with 
antequam  and  priusquam,  292 ;  with 
dum,  donee,  quoad,  293,  III,  2;  sub¬ 
stantive  clauses,  294  f. ;  indir.  ques¬ 
tions,  300;  in  apodosis  of  first  type 
conditions,  302,  4;  jussive  subjunctive 
as  protasis  of  condition,  305,  2;  with 
velut,  tamquam,  etc.,  307 ;  with  necesse 
est,  oportet,  etc.,  295,  6  and  8 ;  with 
licet,  309,  4 ;  with  quamvis,  quamquam, 
etsi,  cum,  ‘  although,’  390  f. 
subidtus,  p.  99,  footnote. 
subm-  =  summ-,  9,  2. 

Subordinate  clauses.  165. 


General  Index.  277 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Substantive  clauses,  294  f. ;  developed 
from  the  volitive,  295,  1-8 ;  developed 
from  the  optative,  296  ;  with  non  dubito , 
298;  indir.  questions,  300;  without  ut, 
295,  8 ;  of  result,  297 ;  introduced  by 
quod ,  299.  * 

-  use  of  adjs.,  236-8. 

subter ,  prep.  w.  acc.,  143,  1. 

Suffixes,  17,  3,  footnote  1 ;  147  f. 

sul,  85  ;  as  objective  gen.,  244,  2  ;  =  pos¬ 
sessive  gen.,  244,  2. 

sum,  conj.,  100;  omitted  when  auxiliary, 
166,  3. 

sumtnus, '  top  of,’  241,  1. 
sunt  qui,  with  subjv.,  283,  2. 
suopte,  suapte,  86,  3. 
supellex,  decl.,  42,  2. 
super,  prep.  w.  acc.,  143,  1. 
superus,  compared,  73,  2. 

Superlative  degree;  of  adjs.,  71,  1;  2; 
in  -rimus,  91,  3;  in  -limus,  71,  4; 
irregular  superb,  72;  73;  lacking,  73, 
4 ;  formed  w.  maxime,  74 :  of  adverbs, 
76,  2 ;  irregular,  77,  1 ;  force  of,  240,  2. 
Supine,  340. 
supra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

-sura,  suffix,  147,  3,  a. 

Surd  consonants,  2,  3,  a),  footnote  1. 
sus,  deck,  41. 
sustuli,  p.  99,  footnote. 
suus,  deck,  86,  1 ;  244 ;  suus  quisque,  244, 
4.  <*. 

Syllaba  anceps ,  366,  10. 

Syllables,  division,  4;  quantity  of,  5,  B. 
Synapheia,  367,  6. 

Synaeresis,  367,  1. 

Synchysis,  350,  11,  d). 

Syncope,  7,  4;  367,8. 

Synecdochical  acc.,  180. 

Synizesis,  367,  1. 

Syntax,  160  f. 

Systole,  367,  3. 

T. 

t,  pron.,  3,  3;  th,2,3,c\  3,  3;  changes, 
8,  2;  dropped,  8,  3. 
taedet ,  138,  II ;  w.  gen.,  209. 

Taking  away,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  188,  2,  d. 
talentum,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  a), 
tamen ,  343,  r,  /. 
tametsi ,  309,  2. 

tamauam,  tamquam  si,  w.  subjv.,  307. 


tanton,  6,  4. 

-tas,  149;  gen.  -tat is,  deck  of  nouns  in, 
40,  1,  e). 

Tasting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  176,  5. 
Teaching,  verbs  of,  constr.,  178,  1,  b. 
ted,  =  te,  84,  3. 

Temporal  clauses,  w.  postquam,  ut,  ubi, 
simul  ac,  287;  w.  cum,  288;  289;  vv. 
antequam  and  priusquam,  291;  292; 
with  dum ,  donee,  quoad,  293. 
temporis  ( id  temporis),  183,  2. 

Tendency,  dat.  of,  191. 
tener,  deck,  64. 

Tenses,  94,  3;  257  ff. ;  of  inf.,  270;  of 
inf.  in  indir.  disc.,  317 ;  of  participles, 
336;  of  subjv.,  266;  sequence  of,  266- 
268  ;  in  indir.  disc.,  317  ;  318. 

Tenues  (consonants),  2,  3,  a),  footnote  1. 
tenus,  position,  142,  3. 

Terminations,  17,  3. 
term,  how  used,  81,  4,  b. 

-ternus,  154. 

terra  marique,  228,  1,  c. 

terr ester,  68,  3. 

Tetrameter  verses,  366,  11. 

Thematic  verbs,  101-113. 

- vowels,  1 17,  footnote. 

Thesis,  366,  6. 

Third  conj.,  105 ;  109  f. ;  deck,  28  f. ; 
gender  in,  43  f. 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  187,  II. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  157,  2. 

Time,  at  which,  230;  during  which,  18 1 ; 

231,  1 ;  within  which,  231. 
timed  ne  and  ut,  296,  2. 

-tinus,  suffix,  154. 

-tio,  suffix,  147,  3. 

Tmesis,  367,  7. 

-to  as  suffix  of  verbs,  155,  2. 

-tor,  use  of  nouns  in,  353,  4. 
totus,  66;  preposition  absent  w.,  in  ex¬ 
pression  of  place  relations,  228,  1,  b). 
Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  2 ;  names 
of,  denoting  limit  of  motion,  182,  1,  a; 
denoting  place  where,  228,  1,  a\  place 
from  which,  229,  1,  a\  appositives  of 
town  names,  169,  4;  229,  2. 
traditur,  traditum  est,  w.  inf.,  332,  N. 
trdns,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141 ;  constr.  of  verbs 
compounded  with,  179. 

Transitive  verbs,  174. 

Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  2. 


2yS  General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


/res,  decl.,  8o,  3. 

Tribrach,  370,  2. 

tribus,  decl.,  49,  3 ;  gender,  50. 

Trimeter  verses,  366,  n. 
trini,  use,  81,  4,  b). 
triumvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 

-trix,  suffix,  147,  1. 

Trochee,  366,  2. 

-trum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

Trusting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 
tu,  decl.,  84. 

-tudo,  suffix,  149. 

tui,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 

-tura,  suffix,  147,  3,  a), 
tus,  decl.,  57,  7. 

~tus,  suffix,  147,  3  ;  151,  4. 

tussis,  decl.,  38. 

tube,  tutemet,  tutimet ,  84,  2. 

Two  accusatives,  177  ;  178. 

Two  datives,  191,  2. 

U. 

u,  instead  of  i  in  some  words,  9,  1 ;  in¬ 
stead  of  a,  9,  1 ;  9,  4. 
u ,  becomes  v,  367,  4. 

«-stems,  48. 

»-stems,  41. 

-u,  dat.  sing.,  4th  decl.,  49,  2. 
uber,  decl.,  70,  1. 

ubi,  with  ind.,  287,  1;  2;  with  gen.,  201, 
3- 

-ubus,  dat.,  plu.,  4th  decl.,  49,  3. 
ullus,  decl.,  66. 
ulterior,  compared,  73,  1. 
ultimus,  use,  241,  2. 
ultra,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141. 

-ulus,  diminutive  ending,  150,  2;  ( a , 

u?n),  148,  1. 

-um,  1st  decl.,  gen.  plu.  in,  21,  2,  d )  ;  2d 
decl.,  25,  6 ;  for  -ium,  70,  7. 

• undus ,  - undi ,  in  gerund  and  gerundive, 
116,  2. 

unus,  decl.,  66 ;  92, 1 ;  unus  est  qui,  with 
subjv.,  283,  2. 

-urio,  ending  of  desiderative  verbs,  155, 
3- 

-urus,  ending  of  fut.  act.  partic.,  101 ; 
103  ff. ;  -urus  fuisse  in  apodosis  of 
conditional  sentences  contrary-to-fact, 
in  indir.  disc.,  321,  2;  -urus  fuerhn  in 
indir.  questions  serving  as  apodoses, 
322,  b. 


-us,  neuter  nouns  of  2d  decl.  in,  26,  2; 
nom.  in  3d  decl.,  in  -us,  36 ;  gender  of 
nouns  in  -us  of  3d  decl.,  43,  3 ;  excep¬ 
tions  in  gender,  46,  4. 

-us,  nouns  of  3d  decl.  in,  43,  2. 
usque  ad,  w.  acc.,  14 1,  1. 
usus  est,  with  abl.,  218,  2. 
ut ,  temporal,  287,  1;  2;  ut,  uti,  in  pur¬ 
pose  clauses,  282;  in  result  clauses, 
284 ;  in  substantive  clauses,  295  f. ; 
substantive  clauses  without,  295,  8; 
with  verbs  of  fearing,  296,  2. 
ut  nle,  —  Tie,  282,  1,  b ;  295,  1,  4,  5. 
ut  Tton  instead  of  ne,  282,  1,  c\  in  clauses 
of  result,  284,  297. 

ut  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  character¬ 
istic,  283,  3. 
ut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  1. 
uter,  decl.,  66;  92,  1. 
uter,  decl.,  40,  1 ,  d). 

7itercu7nque ,  decl.,  92,  2. 
uterlibet,  decl.,  92,  2. 
uterque,  decl.,  92,  2 ;  use,  355,  2. 
utervis,  decl.,  92,  2. 

utilius  est,  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  1,  b). 
utina77i,  with  optative  subjv.,  279,  1  and  2. 
utor,  with  abl.,  218,  1 ;  in  gerundive 
constr.,  339,  4. 

utpote  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  char¬ 
acteristic,  283,  3. 
utrdque,  6,  3. 

utru7n  .  .  .  a7i,  162,  4;  300,  4. 

V. 

v,  1,  1;  pron.,  3,  3;  developing  from  u, 
367,  4- 

v,  becomes  u,  367,  5. 

valde,  by  syncope,  for  valide,  7,  4. 

vale,  363,  2,  b). 

Value,  indefinite,  in  gen.,  203,  3. 
vannus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  b). 

Variations  in  spelling,  9. 
vas,  decl.,  59,  1. 

-ve,  6,  3;  342,  1,  b). 
vel,  342,  1,  b)  ;  with  superb,  240,  3. 
velhn,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 
vellem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 
velut,  velut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  1. 
venter,  decl.,  40,  1,  d). 

Verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  w.  inf.  of 
indir.  disc.,  331,  I ;  passive  use  of 
these,  332. 


General  Index \  279 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Verbal  adjs.,  150,  1-4. 

Verbs,  94  f. ;  personal  endings,  96 ;  de¬ 
ponent,  112;  archaic  and  poetic  forms, 

■  116,4;  irregular,  124;  defective,  133 ; 

impersonal,  138  ;  with  substantive 
clauses  of  result,  297,  2;  omission  of, 
166,  3;  transitive,  174;  used  abso¬ 
lutely,  174,  a\  passives  used  as  mid¬ 
dles,  175,  2 ,d)\  of  smelling  and 
tasting,  constr.,  176,  5;  not  used  in 
passive,  177,  3,  a\  intransitives  im¬ 
personal  in  passive,  187,  II,  b\  256,  3; 
compounded  with  preps.,  constr.,  187, 
III;  of  judicial  action,  constr.,  208; 
derivation  of,  155  f. ;  inceptive  or 
inchoative,  155,  1;  frequentative  or 
intensive,  155,  2;  desiderative,  153,  3; 
denominative,  156;  agreement  of, 
254  f- 

Verb  stems,  97;  formation  of,  117  f. 
vereor,  conj.,  113;  with  subst.  clause  in 
subjv.,  296,  2. 

Vergilius ,  gen.  of,  25,  1. 
veritus ,  with  present  force,  336,  5. 
verb,  343,  i,^)  ;  in  answers,  162,  5. 
Verse,  366,  3. 

Verse-structure,  366  f. 

Versification,  361. 
versus ,  prep.  w.  acc.,  141; 

case,  141,  2. 
verum,  343,  1,  b). 
vescor,  with  abl.,  218,  1. 
vesper,  decl.,  23,  2. 
vesperi,  locative,  232,  2. 
vestri,  as  obj.  gen.,  242,  2. 
vestrum,  as  gen.  of  whole, 
possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
veto,  with  inf.,  331,  II. 
vetus,  decl.,  70;  compared,  73,  3. 

VI,  220,  2. 

vicem,  used  adverbially,  185,  1;  vicis, 
vice,  57,  5,  b. 
victor,  decl.,  34. 
viden,  accent,  6,  4. 
video ,  with  pres,  partic.,  337,  3. 
vigil,  decl.,  34. 
violenter ,  formation,  77,  4,  a. 
vir,  decl.,  23. 

- ,  gen.  plu.  of  nouns  compounded 

with,  25,  6,  b). 
virile  secus,  constr.,  185,  1. 
virus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 


vis,  decl.,  41. 

viscera,  used  in  plu.  only,  56,  3. 

Vocative  case,  17;  19,  1;  of  Greek 
proper  names  in  -as,  47,  4 ;  of  adjs.  in 
-ius,  63,  1;  171;  in  -i  for  -ie,  25,  1; 
position  of,  350,  3. 

Voiced  sounds,  2,  3,  a. 

Voiced  consonants,  2,  3,  b) . 

Voiceless  consonants,  2,  3,  a. 

Voices,  94;  256;  middle  voice,  256,  1. 
Volitive  subjunctive,  272  f. 
volttus,  spelling,  9,  1. 

void,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a;  270, 
2,  a ;  with  subjv.,  296,  1,  a. 
volt,  spelling,  9,  1. 
voltus,  spelling,  9,  1. 
volucer,  decl.,  68,  1. 
voluntate,  220,  2. 

-volus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71, 
5- 

Vowels,  2,  1 ;  sounds  of  the,  3,  1 ;  quan¬ 
tity  of,  5,  A ;  contraction  of,  7,  2;  para¬ 
sitic,  7,  3. 

Vowel  changes,  7. 
vulgus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 

-vum,  -vus,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  24. 

W. 

Want,  verbs  and  adjs.  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  I, 

'  c ;  d. 

Way  by  which,  abl.  of,  218,  9. 

We,  editorial,  242,  3. 

Whole,  gen.  of,  201. 

Wills,  use  of  fut.  imperative  in,  281, 
1,  b. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  I. 

Wish,  clauses  with  dum,  etc.,  expressing 
a,  310. 

Wishes,  subjunctive  in,  279;  see  Opta¬ 
tive  subjunctive. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  with  subst.  clause, 
296,  1 ;  with  obj.  inf.,  331,  IV. 
Word-formation.  146  f. 

Word-order,  348  f. 

Word  questions,  162,  1.  * 

X. 

x,  2,  9;  =  cs  and  gs,  32. 

-x,  decl.  of  monosyllables  in,  preceded  by 
one  or  more  cons.,  40,  1,  b) ;  gender  of 
nouns  in  -x  of  3d  decl.,  43,  2;  excep- 
.  tions,  45,  4. 


follows  its 


280 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Y. 

y,  i,  i. 

Yes,  how  expressed,  162,  5. 

*  You,’  indefinite,  356,  3 ;  280,  3 ;  302,  2. 


Z. 

2,  1,  1;  2,  9. 

Zeugma,  374,  2,  a). 


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